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BULLETIN  NO.  20 


BUREAU  OF  EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH 
COLLEGE  OF  EDUCATION 


TRAINING   IN   THE   TECHNIQUE 
OF   STUDY 

By 

Walter  S.  Monroe 

Director,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 

Assisted  by 

Dora  Keen  Mohlman 

Formerly  Assistant,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 


PRICE  SO  CENTS 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS,  URBANA 

1924 


~t\o.  5^0 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface 5 

Chapter  I.   Introduction 7 

Chapter  II.  General  Report  of  Investigation 9 

Chapter  III.  Report  of  Individual  Cases 21 

Chapter   IV.    Directions   Used   in   Remedial  Training   in 

Study    Procedure 41 

Chapter  V.   How^  Bright  Children  Study 47 

Chapter  VI.  Summary  and  Suggestions  for  Giving  Training 

in  Study  Procedure 53 

Chapter  VII.    Annotated  Bibliography 57 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2011  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign 


http://www.archive.org/details/trainingintechni20monr 


PREFACE 

For  several  years  interest  has  been  manifested  in  the 
problem  of  supervising  or  directing  the  study  of  school 
children,  particularly  in  the  high  school.  It  is  generally 
agreed  that  good  study  procedures  are  a  valuable  asset  to 
a  student.  One  who  knows  how  to  go  about  the  preparation 
of  his  lessons  has  a  decided  advantage  over  one  who  begins 
his  studying  in  a  random  and  haphazard  way. 

The  significance  of  an  effective  technique  of  study  justifies 
the  recognition  of  study  habits  as  important  educational 
objectives.  In  this  bulletin  we  present  the  results  of  an  in- 
quiry into  the  study  habits  of  high-school  students,  and  the 
possibility  of  training  them  to  employ  good  procedures.  The 
investigation  was  made  by  Mrs.  Dora  K.  Mohlman  under 
the  immediate  guidance  of  the  Director  of  the  Bureau  of 
Educational  Research.  Although  the  results  of  the  inquiry 
are  somewhat  unsatisfactory,  it  is  believed  that  a  description 
of  the  procedures  employed,  particularly  the  directions  and 
exercises  for  giving  training  in  study  habits,  will  be  helpful 
to  teachers.  It  is  with  this  hope  in  mind  that  the  report  is 
published. 

Walter  S.  Monroe,  Director 

September  29,  1924. 


TRAINING  IN  THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  STUDY 
CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION 

Failures  of  students  in  high  schools.  Recent  studies  of  failures  in 
high  school  have  served  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  a  large  percent  of 
the  students  do  not  pass  successfully  the  studies  which  they  undertake. 
The  figures  given  below,  describing  conditions  in  one  group  of  high 
schools,  are  taken  from  an  extensive  study  by  O'Brien^  and  are  prob- 
ably fairly  representative  of  conditions  in  general. 


All 
entrants 

Failed  in  at 
least  one 
subject 

All 
graduates 

Failed  in  at 

least  one 

subject 

Total 
Boys 
Girls 

6,141 
2,646 
3,495 

3,573  (58.2) 
1,645  (62.1) 
1,928  (55.1) 

1,936 

796 

1,140 

1,125  (58.1) 
489  (61.4) 
639  (55.8) 

The  fact  that  more  than  half  of  those  graduating  from  high 
school  have  failed  during  their  school  career  in  at  least  one  subject 
shows  a  lack  of  efficiency  which  should  receive  the  thoughtful  con- 
sideration of  those  of  us  who  are  responsible  for  this  division  of  our 
educational  system.  We  are  not  justified  in  claiming  that  the  students 
are  altogether  to  blame  or  that  such  a  high  percent  of  failures  must 
be  expected  if  defensible  standards  are  maintained.  Even  a  casual 
inquiry  indicates  that  some  of  these  failures  are  due  to  certain  mal- 
adjustments in  the  organization  of  the  school,  in  the  course  of  study 
and  in  the  methods  of  instruction. 

Adjustment  of  subject-matter  to  the  interests  and  needs  of 
students.  Among  the  causes  which  contribute  to  failure  in  high 
school  is  a  lack  of  adjustment  of  the  curriculum  to  the  interests  and 
needs  of  the  students.    A  learner's  success  is  potently  influenced  by 


'O'Brien,  Francis  P.  "The  high-school  failures.  A  study  of  the  school  records 
of  the  pupils  in  academic  or  commercial  high-school  subjects."  Teachers  College 
Contributions  to  Education,  No.  102.  New  York:  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, 1920.    97p. 


[7] 


his  estimation  of  the  relation  of  the  subject-matter  to  his  own  hfe. 
It  he  recognizes  a  task  as  one  that  satisfies  a  felt  need  or  that 
appeals  to  his  interest  he  will  usually  apply  himiself  with  diligence 
and  persistence;  if  on  the  other  hand  he  fails  to  see  in  the  assignment 
anything  that  relates  to  his  own  experiences,  he  is  likely  to  approach 
it  with  indifference  and  to  become  discouraged  easily.  Existing  mal- 
adjustments of  subject-miatter  are  being  recognized  and  corrected  to 
some  extent  through  our  various  curriculum  construction  activities. 

Educational  guidance  as  a  means  of  securing  adjustment  to  the 
individual  differences  of  students.  Recent  scientific  investigations 
have  gone  far  in  revealing  the  nature  and  the  extent  to  which  in- 
dividual differences  exist  among  the  boys  and  girls  enrolled  in  our 
high  schools.  Instead  ot  having  to  deal  with  a  school  population  which 
is  characterized  by  homogeneity  ot  interests  and  purposes,  we  now 
realize  that  our  students  differ  widely  in  these  respects.  Educational 
guidance  represents  our  efforts  to  direct  students  in  their  educational 
career  so  that  their  choice  of  subjects  will  be  more  nearly  compat- 
ible with  their  individual  interests  and  capacities. 

Adjustment  through  appropriate  training  in  study  procedures. 
Although  significant  increases  in  the  efficiency  of  our  high  schools 
will  result  undoubtedly  from  the  reconstruction  of  the  curriculum 
and  from  educational  guidance,  there  is  evidence  to  indicate  that 
many  students  are  materially  handicapped  in  their  efforts  to  learn 
because  they  have  not  been  given  appropriate  training  in  the  tech- 
nique of  study.  Instruction  in  the  procedure  of  doirig  the  tasks  set  by 
the  school  will  doubtless  result  in  an  improvement  in  the  achieve- 
ments of  these  students  and  in  a  consequent  decrease  in  the  number 
of  those  who  fail. 

Purpose  of  this  investigation.  The  purpose  of  the  investigation 
reported  in  this  bulletin  is:  (1)  to  secure  evidence  of  the  influence 
of  the  technique  of  study  upon  success  in  certain  high-school  subjects; 

(2)  to  devise  means  of  giving  training  in  the  technique  of  study;  and 

(3)  to  observe  the  effect  of  certain  methods  of  training. 


[8] 


CHAPTER  II 
GENERAL  REPORT  OF  INVESTIGATION 

General  plan  of  investigation.  This  investigation  was  conducted 
during  the  school  year  of  1922-23  under  the  direction  of  Mrs.  Dora 
K.  Mohlman,  an  assistant  in  the  Bureau  of  Educational  Research. 
As  subjects  for  the  experiment,  Principal  L.  W.  Williams  of  the 
University  High  School  designated  ten  students  who  seemed  repre- 
sentative of  those  whose  work  was  unsatisfactory.  Mrs.  Mohlman 
herself  was  in  charge  of  the  specific  training  in  technique  of  study 
reported  in  this  bulletin,  and  devoted  a  certain  portion  of  each  day 
for  a  period  of  ten  weeks  to  this  work.  At  times  the  instruction  was 
given  to  each  student  individually,  at  other  times,  to  the  group  as  a 
whole.  As  two  of  the  students  selected  left  school  during  the  period 
of  training,  this  report  is  based  upon  the  records  of  the  eight  remain- 
ing throughout  the  investigation. 

Standardized  tests  used.  In  order  to  secure  information  con- 
cerning the  capacity  of  these  pupils  to  do  school  work,  the  following 
standardized  tests  were  administered  at  the  beginning  of  the  experi- 
mental period: 

Otis  Group  Intelligence  Scale,  Advanced  Examination,  Form  A 
Terman  Group  Test  of  Mental  Ability,  Form  A 
Monroe  Standardized  Silent  Reading  Test  III,  Form  1 
Thorndike-McCall  Reading  Scale,  Form  2 
Haggerty  Achievement  Examination  in  Reading,  Sigma  3 
Holley  Sentence  Vocabulary  Scale,  Series  3A 
Burgess  Picture  Supplement  Scale,  Form  I 
Memory  for  Serial  Impressions,  The  Method  of  Letter  Squares^ 
Memory  for  Ideas,  The  Marble  Statue- 
Additional  information  secured.     Certain  informal  tests  were 
given  also,  personal  interviews  were  held,  and  a  detailed  inquiry 
was  made  into  the  physical  condition,  previous  school  record,  atti- 
tude toward  school  work,  vocational  aim,  home  conditions  and  general 
study  habits  of  each  student.   The  blank  used  to  record  these  specific 
items  is  reproduced  on  p.  10.    The  section  which  relates  to  general 

^Whipple,  G.  M.    Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests,  Part  II:   Complex  Pro- 
cess.  Baltimore:  Warwick  and  York,  1915,  p.  162-64. 
2/^/V.,  p.  205-11. 

[9] 


study  procedure  was  found  to  be  only  partially  satisfactory  because 
the  process  of  effective  study  has  not  been  analyzed  as  yet  and  no 
one  knows  just  what  information  should  be  collected  in  order  to  re- 
veal a  student's  technique  of  study. 

INFORMATION  BLANK 

Name Age School 

Grade Date 

I.     Schools  previously  attended? 

II.     Grade  or  grades  "skipped"? Why? 

III.  Have  you  ever  remained  out  of  school  for  a  protracted  period? 

How  long? In  what  grade? 

Why? 

IV.  What  subjects  are  you  now  taking? 

V.     Which  subject  do  you  like  best? Why? 

VI.     How  do  you  like  other  subjects? 

(Give  subjects  which  you  are  now  studying  other  than  those  mentioned  in 

Question  IV.) 

Why?  (Ask  after  each  one.) 
VII.     Which  school-subject  among  all  you  have  taken  in  any  grade  do  you  like 

best? Why? 

Least? Why? 

VIII.     Do  you  like  to  read? Why? 

Do  you  read  much  at  home? 

If  not,  why? 

Do  you  read  rapidly  or  slowly? Do  you   understand  what 

you  read? 

IX.     Grades  at  end  of  first  semester? 

X.     List  below  subjects  studied  since  entering  high  school  and  grades  received. 

Underline  those  subjects  in  which  you  failed 

XI.     Are  you  planning  to  complete  high  school? To  go  to 

the  university? 

XII.     Have  you  chosen  your  life  work? If  so,  what  is  it? 

XIII.     Has  student  been  absent  from  school  so  much  that  it  is  felt  that  his  school 

work  materially  suffers  thereby?* 

XIV.     Relationship  between  student  and  his  fellow  students? 

XV.     Additional  facts  concerning  school  history  which  might  explain  cause  of  study 
difficulties 

1.  Does  student  do  work  of  any  sort  outside  of  school? 

2.  How  many  hours  per  day? ''. 

3.  Is  previous  school  training  noticeably  inadequate? 

4.  Disciplinary  difficulties? Causes? 

5.  Is  there  evidence  that  the  student  lacks  ability  to  do  adequate  school 
work? What  is  the  evidence? 

6.  Is  there  a  lack  of  encouragement  of  student  in  the  home  and  failure  of  the 
home  to  back  policy  of  school? 

7.  Is  the  student's  home  life  happy? 


*The  answers  to  this  question  as  well  as  to  questions  XIV  and  XV  were  obtained  from  consultations 
with  the  teachers  or  from  other  sources. 

[10] 


8.  Is  student  worrying  over  a  misfortune  to  any  member  of  his  family? 

9.  Tempermental  difficulties — emotional,  instability,  erratic  behavior  and 

reactions 

10.  What  seems  to  be  student's  difficulty  in  his  work? 

11.  What  serious  illness  has  student  had? 

12.  Present  physical  condition. 

A.  Health-general — Find  out  concerning  weak  lungs,  heart,  ease  with 

which  takes  cold 

B.  Nervousness 

C.  Amount  of  sleep — Usually  from  about to 

D.  Exercise  (What  and  approximately  how  much  per  day) 

E.  Defects — eyesight,  hearing,  etc 

F.  Personal  habits 

13.  What  special  interests  which  might  be  utilized  in  overcoming  study 

difficulties  has  the  student  exhibited? 

In  school  activities? 

In  outside  activities? 

XVI.     General  study  procedure. 

1.  About  how  much  time  have  you  been  in  the  habit  of  spending  on  home 
study  since  you  entered  high  school?   (Amount  of  time  spent  and  when.) 

2.  Are  you  in  the  habit  of  receiving  help  at  home  on  your  lessons? 

3.  What  subjects,  if  any,  do  you  study  regularly  at  home? 

Only  at  school? 

At  home  and  school  both? 

4.  Do  you  have  any  particular  room  in  which  you  study? 

5.  Are  there  people  in  the  room  in  which  you  study? 

Who  are  they,  and  what  do  they  do  while  you  study? 

6.  Is  there  anything  about  the  light,  heat  or  air  of  the  room  that  makes 
you  uncomfortable  as  you  study? 

7.  Do  you  have  a  desk  or  table? Is  it  comfortable  to  work 

there? 

8.  When  do  you  usually  study  at  school? 

9.  Is  there  anything  about  the  heat,  light,  ventilation  of  the  schoolroom 
and  of  your  desk  which  makes  it  uncomfortable  for  you  to  study  there? 

10.  Have  you  a  regular  time  at  which  you  study  each  lesson? 

11.  Do  you  do  all  your  studying  on  one  subject  at  a  time  or  do  you  study  it 
at  various  times? 

.     12.     Do  you  find  your  mind  wandering  while  you  study? 

Very  often? In  your  classes? 

13.  Do  you  stop  and  do  other  things  while  you  study? 

14.  Do  you  have  around  objects  and  books  other  than  the  book  you  are 
studying? What  are  they? 

15.  In  case  you  have  to  do  a  hard  piece  of  work  and  an  easy  piece  of  work, 
which  would  you  do  first? 

16.  Do  you  attempt  to  pick  out  the  most  important  parts  or  topics  in  your 
assignment  and  study  them  most? 

17.  After  you  have  learned  something  new — a  rule,  etc. — do  you  make  an 

effort  to  use  it  so  that  you  will  remember  it  better? 

To  find  an  example  of  it? 

18.  Do  the  teachers  always  make  the  assignments  clear  so  that  you  know 
exactly  what  they  wish  you  to  do  or  are  you  sometimes  not  sure?  Do  you 
ever  seem  to  study  what  the  teacher  doesn't  want? 

[11] 


19.  Has  anyone  ever  tried  to  tell  you  how  you  should  go  about  studying 

other  than  to  tell  you  to  do  it? In  what 

subject  or  subjects? What 

sort  of  directions  did  they  give  you? 

20.  Do  you  ordinarily  keep  on  studying  until  you  fee!  positive  that  you  have 
a  lesson  thoroughly  learned  or  do  you  stop  before  being  sure  that  you 
know  It  thoroughly? 

Capacity  to  do  school  work.  The  information  given  by  the 
standardized  tests  relative  to  the  capacity  of  the  eight  students  to  do 
school  work  is  summarized  in  Table  I.  Although  the  evidence  is 
characterized  by  some  lack  of  agreement,  certain  statements  appear 
to  be  justified.  Two  of  the  subjects,  R.  R.  and  M.  F.,  are  average 
or  above  average  in  capacity.  The  group  intelligence  tests  indicate 
that  J.  B.  possesses  average  ability,  but  his  scores  on  the  other  tests 
are  distinctly  below  the  norms.  L.  W.  and  H.  W.  probably  are  not 
grossly  lacking  in  ability  although  their  scores  are  inconsistent. 
T.  H.  and  W.  J.,  the  two  poorest  students  in  the  group,  are  clearly 
below  average  in  capacity. 


TABLE  I. 


INFORMATION  RELATIVE  TO  CAPACITY 
TO  DO  SCHOOL  WORK 


Students 


R.  R. 


J.  B. 


L.W. 


H.  W. 


T.  H. 


M.  F. 


M.  W. 


W.J. 


Sex 

Grade 

Chronological  age 

Memory  for  Serial  Im 

pression* 

Memory  for  ideas .... 
Age  norms 

Terman  Point  Score. . .  . 
Mental  age 

Otis  Point  Score 

Mental  Age 

Holley  Vocabulary..  . . 
Grade  norms 


B 
X 

19-6 


190 
41 

38.3 

111 
14-10 

132 
18-Ot 

69 

55 


B 
X 

18-7 


150 

28 

36.9 

121 
15-3 

163t 
18-Ot 

43 

55 


B 

XII 

19-4 


197 

32 

38.3 

96 
14-1 

142t 
18-Ot 

59 
69 


G 
X 

16-6 


150 
30 

37.3 

98 
14-4 

112 
14-0 

55 
55 


B 
IX 

14-0 


140 

23 

36.1 

82 
13-5 

97 
12-9 

41 
48 


G 
IX 

13-7 


191 

42 
38.5 


13-8 

142 
18-01 

51 


G 
IX 

16-10 


182 

32 

37.3 

74 
13-3 

110 
13-10 

51 

48 


B 
IX 

16-6 


151 

19 

34.3 

56 

12-3 


12-0 

40 
48 


♦Average  scores:   Age  13,  156.9;  age  14,  165.6;  age  15,  170.8;  age  16,  181.6. 

tThese  scores  were  obtained  from  a  second  application  of  the  test.  There  was  evidence  to  show  that 
the  scores  obtained  from  the  first  trial  were  inaccurate. 

Jin  the  norms  for  this  test  18  is  given  as  the  age  equivalent  for  the  score  of  130.  Thus,  all  scores  above 
130  have  been  translated  into  a  mental  age  of  18  years. 


[12] 


TABLE  II.    MEASURES  OF  ABILITY  IN  SILENT  READING 


Students 

R.  R. 

J.  B. 

L.W. 

H.W. 

T.  H. 

M.F. 

M.  W. 

W.J. 

Monroe  Silent  Reading 
Test 

Rate 

86 
85 

25 
25.4 

53 
62.9 

79 
90 

12 
13 

86 

85 
40 
25.4 

51 
62.9 

75 
90 

7 
13 

77 
96 
28 
30.0 

49 
66.8 

78 
102 

5 
15 

77 
85 
28 

25.4 

88 
90 

15 
13 

77 
83 
12 
23.0 

45 
61.5 

60 

84 

6 
12 

86 
83 
19 
23.0 

47 
61.5 

72 
84 

10 
12 

77 
83 
17 
23.0 

49 
61.5 

75 
84 

7 
12 

55 

Grade  Norms 

Comprehension 

Grade  Norms 

Thorndike-McCall  Read- 
ing Scale 

Score 

83 
0 
23.0 

39 

Grade  Norms 

Haggerty  Reading  Ex- 
amination 

Score  

61.5 
48 

Grade  Norms 

Burgess  Picture  Supple- 
ment Scale 
Score 

84 

5 

Grade  Norms* 

12 

'These  norms  have  been  estimated  from  those  given  for  grades  II-VIII.    It  was  presumed  that  the 
standards  would  increase  one  for  each  grade  of  the  high  school  as  for  each  of  the  upper  elementary  grades. 

Ability  in  silent  reading.  The  measures  of  silent  reading  ability 
are  summarized  in  Table  II.  In  interpreting  this  table  the  reader 
should  bear  in  mind  that  Monroe's  Standardized  Silent  Reading 
Test  III  measures  skill  in  reading  simple  material  and  that  the  other 
two  tests  are  designed  to  measure  power  to  read  difficult  material. 
R.  R.  and  J.  B.  are  shown  to  be  skillful  in  reading  easy  material,  but 
are  lacking  in  power.  As  study  seems  to  be  more  closely  related  to 
power  than  to  skill  in  reading  simple  material,  this  fact  is  significant. 
H.  W.  appears  to  comprehend  but  reads  slowly.  W.  J.  is  grossly 
lacking  in  ability  to  comprehend. 

Additional  information  secured  by  means  of  informal  tests. 
In  order  to  secure  more  detailed  information  concerning  the  defi- 
ciencies of  these  students  in  silent  reading  certain  informal  tests  were 
devised.  Some  of  these  were  administered  individually  and  the  in- 
vestigator had  a  better  opportunity  of  becoming  familiar  with  the 
student's  mental  processes  than  was  possible  through  standardized 


[13] 


tests  alone.  The  particular  purposes  to  be  realized  by  means  of  these 
informal  tests  are  indicated  by  the  captions  of  the  following  para- 
graphs. 

1.  Procedure  in  finding  information  in  textbooks.  The  students 
were  given  a  copy  of  a  reference  book  in  ancient  history  and  the 
following  questions  pertaining  to  the  mechanics  of  using  a  book  were 
asked: 

1.  On  what  page  is  the  map  of  Europe  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne  A.  D.  814? 
Tell  how  you  found  this  map? 

2.  How  many  chapters  are  contained  in  Part  IV  of  the  book?  How  did  you 
find  out? 

3.  On  what  page  is  a  colored  plate  showing  a  Corner  of  the  Parthenon? 

Tell  how  you  found  this  page 

4.  On  what  page  do  you  find  information  about  Amos  the  peaceful  reformer? 
Tell  how  you  found  this  page 

5.  Name  another  book  which  the  author  gives  as  a  reference  to  be  read  in  con- 
nection with  Chapter  XVII Tell  how  you 

found  it 

6.  Turn  to  page  590.   What  does  (953)  mean? 

7.  Write  the  paragraph  headings  on  page  157 

2.  Habitual  manner  of  reading.  The  student  was  directed  to 
read  certain  selected  passages  in  history,  literature  and  civics, 
"just  as  if  they  had  been  assigned  by  your  teacher  and  you  were 
studying  your  lesson."  The  time  for  such  reading  was  taken  and  the 
student  was  directed  to  "tell  me  just  what  you  have  been  reading" 
or  to  answer  specific  questions  based  upon  the  selection  read.  If 
errors  were  made  the  student  was  asked  to  reread  the  passage  for  the 
purpose  of  identifying  his  difficulty. 

3.  Attention  to  details.  The  student  was  asked  to  read  simple 
material  and  then  to  answer  questions  calling  for  specific  details. 
For  example,  one  student  was  given  a  passage  containing  the  names 
and  descriptions  of  eight  dogs  comprising  a  sledge  team.  After  he 
completed  his  reading  he  was  asked  to  tell  the  number  of  dogs,  and 
first  answered  "four."  When  asked  the  question,  "Are  you  sure  you 
are  right?",  he  read  again  and  answered  "five."  The  next  inquiry 
brought  the  answer  "seven."  It  was  only  after  the  fourth  reading 
that  he  gave  the  correct  number. 

4.  Vocabulary.  The  score  made  on  the  Holley  Sentence  Vo- 
cabulary Scale  is  indicative  of  the  size  of  the  reading  vocabulary. 
Additional  information  was  secured  by  asking  these  students  to 
give  the  meaning  of  phrases  and  clauses  which  they  encountered  in 
some  of  the  more  difficult  reading.  Attention  was  given  to  phrases 
and  clauses  rather  than  to  words. 

[14] 


5.  Rate  of  rapid  reading.  The  student  was  directed  to  "read  as 
rapidly  as  you  can  and  still  be  able  to  tell  me  what  you  read,"  and 
at  the  end  of  one  minute  was  asked  to  tell  in  his  own  words  what  he 
had  read  and  sometimes  to  answer  specific  questions.  A  variety  of 
material  was  used  with  this  direction.  The  purpose  was  to  determine 
the  maximum  rate  at  which  the  student  was  able  to  read  with  a 
satisfactory  comprehension. 

6.  Following  directions.  The  information  revealed  by  the 
Burgess  Picture  Supplement  Scale  was  supplemented  by  other  tests 
which  involved  the  following  of  directions.  These  tests  varied  some- 
what with  the  different  students. 

7.  Eye  movements.  Information  concerning  mechanism  of 
reading  was  secured  by  asking  each  student  to  read  before  a  mirror 
placed  so  that  the  movements  of  his  eye  could  be  seen  by  the  observer. 
It  was  found  that  the  number  of  fixations  per  line  and  the  frequency 
of  regressive  movements  could  be  determined  with  sufficient  accuracy 
to  indicate  whether  or  not  a  lack  of  skillful  eye  movement  existed. 

Causes  of  poor  performance  in  silent  reading.  Four  of  the  eight 
subjects  were  found  not  to  be  deficient  in  the  mechanics  of  reading. 
Their  unsatisfactory  performance  was  due  almost  wholly  to  difficulty 
in  comprehension  and  interpretation.  The  other  four  subjects  read 
very  slowly,  exhibited  other  evidences  of  serious  defects  in  the 
mechanics  of  reading,  and  appeared  also  to  be  lacking  in  their  ability 
to  understand  the  material  read.  In  addition  to  the  limitations 
chargeable  to  a  lack  of  general  capacity  to  learn,  the  most  obvious 
causes  of  failure  in  silent  reading  were  the  following: 

1.  Inadequate  reading  vocabulary. 

2.  Failure  to  give  attention  to  details  of  material  read. 

3.  Failure  or  inability  to  think  independently  about  what  is  read. 

4.  Lack  of  interest  in  reading. 

5.  Lack  of  skill  in  recognition  of  words. 

6.  Narrow  span  of  recognition. 

7.  Unsatisfactory  eye  movements. 

Remedial  exercises  in  reading.^  After  considering  the  subjects 
from  two  points  of  view,  namely  (1)  their  capacity  to  do  school  work 
and  (2)  their  ability  to  read  silently,  it  appeared  that  exercises  de- 
signed to  remedy  deficiencies  in  silent  reading  would  tend  to  improve 
their  technique  of  study.    For  the  most  part  the  exercises  were  the 

^Because  of  the  limitations  of  space  only  the  most  significant  types  of  exercises 
will  be  described. 

[15] 


same  for  the  eight  students  although  there  was  some  adaptation  to 
specific  needs.  If  the  causes  of  deficiency  enumerated  in  the  above 
paragraph  could  have  been  analyzed  into  more  elementary  causes 
it  is  likely  that  students  who  appeared  to  have  the  same  needs  would 
have  been  shown  to  differ  in  the  nature  of  their  deficiencies,  and  that 
greater  differentiation  could  have  been  made  in  the  character  of  the 
remedial  exercises. 

Exercises  to  increase  the  rate  of  reading.  In  order  to  increase 
the  rate  of  reading  the  subject  was  given  a  daily  exercise  in  which  he 
was  directed  to  read  for  one  minute  "as  fast  as  you  can  and  still  be 
able  to  tell  me  what  you  have  read."  In  case  he  failed  to  give  a 
satisfactory  oral  reproduction  of  the  material  read  he  was  asked  to 
reread  the  text  and  make  the  necessary  corrections.  The  subject  was 
kept  informed  of  his  daily  score  in  terms  of  numberof  words  per  minute 
and  was  encouraged  to  compete  with  his  previous  record.  An  at- 
tempt was  made  to  keep  the  material  reasonably  uniform  in  diffi- 
culty and  in  the  nature  of  subject-matter. 

Exercises  to  increase  span  of  recognition.  Some  of  the  exercises 
designed  to  increase  the  span  of  recognition  were  similar  to  those 
described  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  except  that  very  easy  material 
was  chosen  so  that  little  difficulty  in  comprehension  would  be  en- 
countered. Most  of  the  selections  were  taken  from  supplementary 
readers  for  the  intermediate  grades.  Students  whose  span  of  recogni- 
tion was  very  narrow  were  given  also  quick  perception  drills  on 
sentences  of  various  lengths  and  degrees  of  vocabulary  difficulty. 
Each  sentence  was  typed  on  a  separate  card  and  exposed  for  a  very 
short  time.  As  the  subject  increased  his  span  of  recognition,  longer 
sentences  were  used.   Representative  sentences  are  reproduced  below: 

The  man  is  very  poor. 

She  lighted  another  match. 

The  war  began  two  years  ago. 

There  is  a  bridge  over  the  river. 

Once  a  fairy  lived  in  a  wood. 

The  house  was  neat  from  attic  to  cellar. 

The  rolls  were  covered  with  a  napkin. 

Mother  is  making  lemon  pies  and  squash  pies. 

In  my  opinion,  we  should  all  work  for  peace. 

Do  not  accuse  a  person  of  evil  too  quickly. 

Exercises  to  enlarge  vocabulary.^    In  the  case  of  those  students 

who  had  most  difficulty  with  their  reading  vocabulary,  emphasis 

^Suggestions  for  these  exercises  were  secured  from: 

Osburn,  W.  J.  "Graded  and  diagnostic  paragraphs  for  use  in  silent  reading," 
Madison,  Wisconsin:     State  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  1922.     6  p. 

[16] 


was  placed  upon  engendering  an  attitude  of  watchfulness  for  those 
words  that  were  unfamiliar  or  not  clearly  understood.  When  such 
a  word  was  identified  either  the  student  was  shown  another  passage 
which  contained  the  same  word,  or  the  investigator  formulated  a 
suitable  sentence.  If  this  procedure  proved  unsuccessful  the  student 
was  directed  to  look  up  the  word  in  the  dictionary,  select  the  appro- 
priate meaning,  and  then  use  the  word  in  two  or  three  sentences. 
The  original  sentence  containing  the  unfamiliar  word  was  copied  in 
a  notebook  so  that  a  record  of  new  words  was  kept  for  each 
student  and  used  for  review.  An  important  phase  of  this  remedial 
treatment  was  an  endeavor  to  increase  the  student's  power  of  de- 
riving word  meanings  from  the  context  and  thus  to  develop  a  habit 
of  determining  meanings  in  this  way.  After  reading  a  selection  the 
student  designated  the  unfamiliar  words  and  occasionally  was  asked 
at  the  end  of  each  line  if  there  had  been  any  words  of  which  he  did 
not  know  the  meaning. 

Exercises  to  engender  skillful  eye  movements.  The  exercises 
designed  to  increase  the  span  of  recognition  served  also  to  decrease 
the  number  of  regressive  and  irregular  eye  movements.  In  addition, 
the  subjects  were  frequently  asked  to  read  "just  as  rapidly  as  you 
can"  some  simple  and  narrative  material.  The  selections  chosen 
were  designed  for  the  third  grade  and  conversational  passages  tend- 
ing to  introduce  a  large  number  of  short  lines  were  avoided.  As  the 
purpose  of  these  exercises  was  to  encourage  rapid  reading,  the  stud- 
ents were  not  questioned  on  comprehension. 

Exercises  to  arouse  interest.  The  need  for  increasing  an  in- 
terest in  reading  was  kept  in  mind,  when  possible,  in  selecting  ma- 
terial for  all  the  exercises.  Frequently,  the  students,  after  reading  and 
discussing  a  portion  of  a  narrative,  desired  to  complete  the  story  and 
were  encouraged  to  do  so.  Attention  to  details  was  minimized  as 
much  as  possible  in  order  to  avoid  engendering  a  dislike  for  the 
reading  of  stories.  Partly  as  a  result  of  the  training  given,  one  sub- 
ject read  two  large  books  during  the  ten  weeks  of  observation. 

Exercises  to  correct  errors  in  recognition  of  words.  Although  it 
was  not  the  purpose  of  this  investigation  to  give  training  in  oral 
reading  it  was  thought  desirable  to  give  some  oral  exercises  in  order 
to  correct  certain  errors  in  the  recognition  of  words.  Occasionally  in 
connection  with  the  silent  reading  of  a  passage,  a  student  was  asked 
to  pronounce  certain  words  when  there  was  any  evidence  that  they 
had  not  been  recognized  accurately. 

[17] 


It  was  noted  that  frequently  familiar  words  such  as  "prove** 
for  "provide;"  "hospitable"  for  "hospitality;"  "through"  for 
"thorough;"  "broad"  for  "board,"  etc.  were  miscalled.  When  a 
student  made  this  type  of  error  he  was  asked  to  pronounce  lists  of 
words  in  addition  to  reading  the  oral  selections.  The  mispronounced 
words  were  noted,  were  called  to  his  attention,  and  were  kept  on 
record  as  a  basis  for  further  practice. 

It  was  found  that  some  students  failed  to  identify  certain 
printed  words  which  they  were  accustomed  to  use  in  their  conversa- 
tion, and  which  when  heard  afforded  them  no  difficulty  of  compre- 
hension. For  example,  when  encountering  the  sentence,  "The  gnat 
stung  the  cattle,"  "gat"  was  read  for  "gnat"  although  the  student 
was  found  to  be  familiar  with  the  sound  and  meaning  of  the  word 
"gnat."  This  type  of  error  might  result  from  a  weakness  in  visual 
memory,  but  there  was  no  evidence  that  this  was  true,  except 
possibly  in  the  case  of  one  subject. 

Exercises  to  give  training  in  answering  questions  from  memory. 
Exercises  designed  to  give  training  in  answering  questions  from 
memory  were  compiled.  Usually  the  subjects  gave  oral  replies, 
although  at  times  they  were  required  to  write  their  answers.  The 
directions  given  the  students  after  a  certain  paragraph  had  been 
indicated  were :  "  Read  as  rapidly  and  as  carefully  as  you  can.  I  want 
you  to  read  as  fast  as  you  can  and  still  be  able  to  answer  questions 
about  what  you  have  read."  The  questions  asked  called  usually  for 
specific  facts. 

Exercises  to  give  training  in  finding  answers  to  questions. 
In  exercises  designed  for  the  purpose  of  finding  answers,  the  student 
was  given  the  questions  before  he  began  to  read  and  was  then  directed 
to  "read  and  answer  these  questions.  Work  as  rapidly  as  you  can 
and  be  sure  to  get  everything  right."  The  exercises  were  very  similar 
to  those  in  the  Thorndike-McCall  Reading  Scale  and  in  other  silent 
reading  tests  of  the  same  type.  A  few  exercises  were  used  in  which 
the  student  was  asked  to  check  from  a  given  list  the  statement  which 
he  considered  correct. 

A  study  of  the  errors  made  on  the  Thorndike-McCall  Reading 
Scale  indicated  that  the  students  were  unable  to  distinguish  material 
which  was  relevant  to  a  given  question  from  that  which  was  irrele- 
vant. In  order  to  correct  this  fault,  the  student  was  given  exercises, 
illustrations  of  which  are  reproduced  below,  in  which  he  was  asked 
to  indicate  the  best  reason  for  a  statement. 

[18] 


Draw  a  line  under  the  one  statement  which  is  the  best  reason  for  each  of  the 
following  sentences: 

A  nation  is  great  because: 

It  has  great  buildings. 

It  has  large  armies. 

It  has  many  rich  people. 

The  hearts  of  its  people  are  good,  noble  and  just. 

Its  people  are  industrious. 
Wheat  is  an  important  grain  for  the  farmer  because: 

It  can  be  easily  raised. 

It  is  one  of  the  oldest  foods  of  man. 

It  is  used  to  make  one  of  the  most  important  foods — bread. 

Fields  of  wheat  are  beautiful. 

Exercises  to  give  training  in  explaining  meanings.  In  order  that 
the  students  might  receive  training  in  expressing  meanings,  they 
were  given  single  sentences  at  first,  and  later  paragraphs  which  they 
were  to  read  and  express  in  their  own  words.  A  few  representative 
sentences  and  paragraphs  are  reproduced  below: 

It  is  certain  that  the  taste  of  the  people  of  any  country  is  reflected  in  the  liter- 
ature they  prefer. 

It  seems  almost  incredible  that  oil  was  first  regarded  as  worthless,  then  sold  in 
small  bottles  as  a  medicine,  until  a  process  for  refining  was  discovered  and  the  kerosene 
of  commerce  made  its  appearance. 

The  miner  is  the  one  individual  who  refuses  to  recognize  the  impossible.  He  is 
always  willing  to  stop  anywhere,  under  any  circumstances,  to  talk  about  mines,  and 
he  Is  always  hopeful,  joyous  and  buoyant.  No  matter  if  he  never  made  a  dollar  from 
a  mine  in  his  life,  he  is  always  certain  that  he  will  "strike  it  rich"  soon. 

The  emphatic  positions  in  the  sentence,  as  in  the  paragraph,  are  the  beginning 
and  the  end.  The  beginning  attracts  attention  first  whereas  the  end  gives  the  final 
impression.  The  intervening  portions  serve  to  connect,  to  explain  or  to  limit  the  im- 
portant elements,  which  are  emphasized  by  being  placed  at  the  extremes  of  the  sen- 
tence. Some  elements,  it  must  be  observed,  would  not  be  emphatic  anywhere  in  the 
sentence;  hence  to  place  them  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  would  weaken  the  thought. 

In  the  West,  the  Confederates  had  been  forced  back  everywhere,  resisting  stub- 
bornly but  in  vain.  The  whole  southern  coast  was  blockaded  by  northern  fleets.  In 
the  East,  Lee  still  kept  back  the  Federal  Army  and  it  seemed  as  far  as  ever  from  its 
goal,  Richmond.  But  every  day  the  Union  army  grew  larger  and  the  Confederate 
smaller.  The  North  had  abundant  men  and  means.  Nine-tenths  of  the  southern 
men  were  in  the  army  and  there  were  no  men  at  home  to  replace  the  killed,  wounded 
and  captured.   By  the  end  of  the  year,  it  was  evident  that  the  South  was  losing  ground. 

Training  in  technique  of  study.  In  attempting  to  give  specific 
training  in  the  technique  of  study,  it  was  recognized  that  the  same 
methods  probably  should  not  be  followed  for  the  different  subjects 
of  the  curriculum.  Consequently,  in  addition  to  general  directions 
regarding  study  procedure,  tentative  sets  of  directions  were  prepared 
for  history,  algebra,  and  English  literature.  These  were  modified 
from  time  to  time  as  the  experiment  progressed.  Each  student  was 
given  a  copy  of  the  directions^  and  was  asked  to  apply  them  in  the 
preparation  of  his  assignments  and  to  report  upon  their  use. 

^The  discussion  of  these  directions  and  the  final  lists  in  certain  subjects  are  pre- 
sented in  Chapter  IV. 

[19] 


Results  of  training.  Although  approximately  ten  weeks  were 
devoted  to  this  experiment  of  training  in  technique  of  study,  no 
student  was  able,  because  of  illness,  to  participate  for  more  than 
eight  weeks.  During  the  first  half  of  the  experimental  period  the 
emphasis  was  placed  upon  the  remedial  training  in  silent  reading; 
twenty-five  minutes  a  day,  four  days  a  week  at  first  and  later  two, 
being  devoted  to  this  work.  During  the  latter  half  of  the  period, 
the  methods  used  in  the  preparation  ot  actual  assignments  were 
given  special  attention.  Certain  of  the  students  made  noticeable 
progress;  one  sophomore  made  his  first"  A"  since  entering  high  school 
while  receiving  training  in  ancient  history,  a  freshman  showed  a 
decided  gain  in  work  in  algebra.  Although  it  is  recognized  that  the 
improvement  noted  may  not  be  permanent,  it  is  believed  that  the 
majority  of  these  eight  students  will  be  more  efficient  in  their  school 
work  because  of  the  benefits  derived  from  the  specific  remedial 
training  received. 


[20] 


CHAPTER  ni 

REPORT  OF  INDIVIDUAL  CASES 

In  this  chapter  a  detailed  report  is  given  for  each  of  the  eight 
students  who  participated  in  the  investigation.  Emphasis  is  placed 
upon  the  causes  of  unsatisfactory  school  performance  and  upon  the 
remedial  instruction  which  was  applied. 

CASE  I.    R.  R.    GRADE  X. 

School  history.  R.  R.  is  a  young  man  whose  age  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  investigation  was  19  years  and  6  months.  His  previous 
training  had  been  received  in  a  rural  school  and  in  the  high  school  of  a 
small  town.  After  completing  the  ninth  grade  and  part  of  the  tenth 
he  remained  out  of  school  for  three  years  before  entering  the  Uni- 
versity High  School  in  September,  1922.  In  the  judgment  of  his 
teachers,  R.  R.'s  preparation  had  been  somewhat  inadequate  for 
tenth-grade  work.  One  of  his  teachers  made  the  statement  "he  has 
forgotten  or  never  has  known  a  lot  of  general  information  which  other 
students  have  ready  for  use."  At  the  time  of  the  investigation,  R.  R. 
was  studying  geometry,  mechanical  drawing,  manual  training,  and 
English  literature.  He  expressed  himself  as  liking  English  literature 
best  because"  the  teacher  makes  it  so  interesting."  He  liked  geometry 
least  but  was  unable  to  assign  a  specific  reason.  During  the  first 
semester  of  the  school  year,  1922-23,  he  studied  rhetoric  and  com- 
position, manual  training,  and  geometry,  in  which  he  received  the 
grades  D,  C,  and  C  respectively.  His  written  work  was  very  poor. 
Frequently  he  used  sentences  which  were  incomplete  and  which 
showed  that  he  did  not  possess  a  rudimentary  knowledge  of  sentence 
construction. 

Educational  plans.  R.  R.  had  re-entered  high  school  with  the 
intention  of  qualifying  for  entrance  in  the  College  of  Agriculture  at 
the  University  of  Illinois.  He  appeared  to  have  settled  upon  this 
purpose  after  mature  deliberation  and  was  working  about  four  hours 
a  day  in  order  to  defray  a  part  of  his  expenses. 

Disturbing  factors.  R.  R.  was  not  in  the  best  of  physical  con- 
dition and,  on  account  of  illness,  was  absent  from  school  occasionally 
during  the  investigation.    Because  of  his  outside  work  he  was  forced 

[21] 


to  study  late  in  the  evening,  and  probably  did  not  have  sufficient 
sleep  and  exercise.  For  several  years  he  has  been  afflicted  with  a 
slight  deafness  which  caused  him  to  miss  some  of  the  teacher's  re- 
marks, and  which  at  times  became  more  acute  as  a  result  of  frequent 
colds.  He  was  nervous,  self-conscious,  rather  lacking  in  self  confidence, 
and  hesitated  to  volunteer  a  remark  in  class  because  he  was  afraid  of 
being  wrong. 

Capacity  to  do  school  work.  According  to  the  scores  made  on  the 
Otis  Group  Intelligence  Scale,  and  the  Terman  Group  Test  of  Mental 
Ability,  R.  R.  ranked  normal  in  intelligence.  However,  in  both  tests 
his  scores  fell  in  the  lower  half  of  the  normal  group.  This  standing 
was  corroborated  by  the  estimates  of  his  teachers  and  by  the  obser- 
vation of  the  investigator  during  the  period  of  training.  In  addition 
to  possessing  low  normal  general  capacity  for  school  work,  it  appeared 
that  he  was  rather  markedly  lacking  in  ability  to  do  independent 
thinking. 

General  procedure  of  study.  R.  R.  had  a  fairly  regular  time  and 
place  for  the  study  of  each  subject  and  was  fortunate  in  having  his 
physical  surroundings  comfortable.  However,  he  lived  in  a  rooming 
house  and  was  frequently  interrupted  during  the  evenings  by  visits 
from  other  boys.  According  to  his  own  statement  he  experienced 
considerable  difficulty  in  getting  down  to  study  again  after  an  absence 
of  three  years  from  school,  and  found  that  his  mind  was  constantly 
wandering  from  the  lesson  he  was  preparing.  Observation  of  his 
study  in  English  literature  demonstrated  that  his  learning  was 
superficial  and  that  he  appeared  to  be  unaware  of  the  fact  that  he  was 
getting  little  meaning  from  the  printed  page.  He  did  not  seem  to 
realize  the  necessity  of  getting  ideas  clearly  in  mind  and  apparently 
made  no  attempt  to  evaluate  and  organize  the  content  of  the  assign- 
ments. His  purpose  apparently  was  to  remember  as  far  as  possible 
the  words  of  the  text.  He  stated  that  he  ordinarily  stopped  studying 
before  he  felt  sure  that  he  had  thoroughly  mastered  his  lesson. 

Diagnosis  of  reading  ability.  On  the  Monroe  Standardized 
Silent  Reading  Test  III,  Form  1,  his  scores  were  up  to  the  standard 
for  his  grade,  and  his  performance  on  the  Burgess  Picture  Supplement 
Scale,  Form  1,  was  considered  satisfactory.  On  the  other  hand,  his 
performance  on  the  Thorndike-McCall  Reading  Scale,  Form  2,  and 
on  the  Haggerty  Achievement  Examination  in  Reading,  Sigma  3 
was  somewhat  below  standard.  An  examination  of  his  errors  on 
these  two  tests  indicated  that  R.  R.  was  in  the  habit  of  giving  little 

[22] 


attention  to  details  in  reading.  This  was  corroborated  by  the  informal 
reading  test  and  by  the  observation  of  his  study.  The  results  of  the 
diagnosis  of  R.  R.  's.  ability  in  silent  reading  may  be  summarized  as 
follows : 

1.  He  fails  to  give  sufficient  attention  to  the  meaning  of  the 
material  read. 

2.  He  has  a  habit  of  skipping  or  of  otherwise  neglecting  words 
or  even  small  groups  of  words. 

3.  He  fails  to  think  about  what  he  is  reading. 

4.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  made  a  satisfactory  score  on  the 
Holley  Sentence  Vocabulary  Scale,  he  was  found  to  be  defi- 
cient in  reading  vocabulary. 

Remedial  training  in  reading.  In  applying  the  remedial  instruc- 
tion described  in  Chapter  II  for  the  purpose  of  correcting  his  faults 
in  silent  reading,  it  was  found  that  R.  R.  greatly  reduced  his  rate  of 
reading,  which  at  the  beginning  of  the  investigation  had  been  ap- 
proximately normal  for  his  grade.  In  order  to  correct  this  tendency 
he  was  given  exercises  to  increase  his  rate  of  reading.  His  cooperation 
was  enlisted  by  pointing  out  the  specific  character  of  his  faults  and 
his  interest  was  sustained  throughout  the  investigation. 

Result  of  remedial  training  in  reading.  At  the  end  of  the  ex- 
perimental period,  of  which  approximately  four  weeks  had  been 
devoted  to  remedial  training  in  reading,  R.  R.  was  again  tested  in 
silent  reading  by  Monroe's  Standardized  Silent  Reading  Test  III, 
Form  2,  Thorndike-McCall  Reading  Scale,  Form  3,  and  the  Burgess 
Picture  Supplement  Scale,  Form  2.  The  scores  made  both  at  the 
beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  experimental  period  are  given  below: 

Initial  Final  Grade 

Scores  Scores  Norms 
Monroe  Standardized  Silent  Reading  Test*.  . 

Rate 86  106  90 

Comprehension 25                    32  28 

Thorndike-McCall  Reading  Scale 53                    55  62 . 9 

Burgess  Picture  Supplement  Scale 12                    15  13 

*Forms  1  and  2  of  Monroe's  Standardized  Silent  Reading  Test  do  not  yield  equivalent  scores.  It  is 
likely  that  the  duplicate  forms  of  the  two  other  tests  also  fail  to  yield  equivalent  scores.  Hence  compari- 
sons between  initial  scores  and  final  scores  should  be  made  with  caution.  The  norms  for  Monroe's  Stand- 
ardized Silent  Reading  Test  given  in  this  and  in  similar  tables  are  for  Form  2. 

The  results  of  the  tests  indicate  that  R.  R.  made  distinct  gains 
in  his  ability  to  read  silently.  In  the  case  of  the  Monroe  Standardized 
Silent  Reading  Test  III,  his  final  scores  are  above  the  standard  for 

[23] 


his  grade,  whereas  his  initial  scores  are  slightly  below.  The  investi- 
gator believes  that  the  actual  improvement  in  reading  ability  is 
greater  even  than  indicated  by  these  tests,  and  that  R.  R.,  because  he 
understands  and  is  interested  in  overcoming  his  reading  deficiencies, 
has  been  given  a  means  for  continuing  his  advancement. 

Remedial  training  in  study  procedure.  At  R.  R.'s  own  request, 
the  training  in  study  procedure  was  given  in  English  literature,  his 
favorite  subject.  The  class  during  the  ten  weeks  of  investigation  was 
studying  poems  of  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Byron,  Scott,  and  Keats. 
As  the  pupils  were  frequently  asked  to  read  the  poems  aloud  in  class, 
they  received  some  training  in  oral  reading.  In  the  remedial  training 
given  R.  R.,  emphasis  was  placed  upon  methods  of  study  that  would 
be  effective  in  securing  the  meaning  of  the  material  read  and  that 
would  lead  to  independent  thinking  about  the  topic  studied. 

Results  of  remedial  training  in  study  procedure.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  experimental  period,  R,  R.'s  work  in  English  Litera- 
ture was  rated  as  D—  ;  at  the  close,  as  C  and  C  — .  According  to  his 
teacher's  statement,  he  had  shown  improved  ability  to  get  the  mean- 
ing of  the  subject-matter,  but  was  still  unable  to  do  much  independ- 
ent thinking.  "He  seems  incapable,"  she  said,  "of  standing  on  his 
feet  and  going  far  into  the  realm  of  ideas."  His  attitude  during  the 
entire  ten  weeks  was  very  commendable  and  he  made  a  determined 
effort  to  carry  out  the  suggestions  for  study.  The  fact  that  he  was 
able  to  do  better  work  afforded  him  much  encouragement  and  in- 
creased his  desire  to  perform  well  the  tasks  assigned  him.  This  im- 
proved attitude  toward  his  school  life  was  one  of  the  most  gratifying 
results  of  the  remedial  training. 

Summary.  As  a  result  of  the  intensive  study  made  of  R.  R.  the 
following  conclusions  were  apparent: 

1.  R.  R.'s  capacity  to  do  school  work,  particularly  in  those 
subjects  which  require  much  abstract  thinking,  is  slightly  below  the 
average.  These  general  limitations  are  accentuated  by  the  difficulty 
of  getting  back  to  study  after  an  absence  of  three  years  from  school 
and  by  a  lack  of  physical  well-being. 

2.  His  previous  training  was  received  in  schools  that  gave  little 
attention  to  training  pupils  in  effective  methods  of  study. 

3.  A  haphazard,  unmethodical  and  ineffective  study  procedure, 
particularly  in  silent  reading,  largely  the  result  of  his  previous  train- 
ing, was  perhaps  more  responsible  than  any  other  single  factor  for 
his  low  school  standing  at  the  beginning  of  the  investigation. 

[24] 


4.  The  remedial  training  resulted  in  increased  reading  ability 
and  in  more  satisfactory  school  work  in  the  subject  for  which  specific 
directions  were  given.  It  is,  however,  not  certain  that  the  effect  of 
the  short  period  of  training  will  be  permanent.  It  is  the  belief  of  the 
investigator  that  if  similar  training  had  been  given  earlier  in  the 
school  career  and  had  been  extended  over  a  longer  period,  R.  R. 
would  have  been  rated  as  a  good  student  at  the  time  of  this  investi- 
gation. 

CASE  n.    J.  B.    GRADE  X. 

School  history.  J.  B.,  whose  chronological  age  at  the  beginning 
of  the  investigation  was  18  years  and  7  months,  is  a  quiet  and  some- 
what shy  young  man.  This  is  probably  emphasized  by  the  fact  that 
he  is  not  fluent  in  speech  and  has  a  slight  lisp.  His  home  is  in  Urbana 
where  he  received  his  elementary  education.  On  account  of  failure  in 
grammar  school  he  repeated  the  fifth  grade.  After  completing  the 
eighth  grade  he  left  school  "because  he  did  not  like  school"  but  three 
years  later,  September,  1921,  he  entered  the  University  High  School. 
During  the  first  semester  of  the  school  year,  1922-23,  he  studied 
English  II — language  and  composition,  Spanish  I,  chemistry  I, 
civics,  and  geometry  I,  and  made  grades  of  D,  D,  D,  C,  and  C, 
respectively.  The  marks  received  during  the  preceding  year  had 
been  more  satisfactory,  about  half  of  them  being  B's. 

In  addition  to  his  heavy  schedule  of  studies,  J.  B.  was  spending 
two  or  three  hours  a  day  in  outside  work.  His  attitude  toward  school 
and  his  relationships  with  his  teachers  and  fellow-students  were  ex- 
cellent in  every  respect.  He  had  the  reputation  of  being  a  hard  worker 
and  was  seldom,  if  ever,  found  to  be  idle.  He  stated  that,  after  com- 
pleting high  school,  he  expected  to  enter  the  University  of  Illinois  in 
order  to  prepare  himself  as  a  civil  engineer. 

Disturbing  factors.  J.  B.  was  in  poor  physical  condition  and  was 
often  subject  to  colds.  He  was  absent  frequently  from  school  because 
of  illness,  either  his  own  or  that  of  other  members  of  his  family. 

Capacity  to  do  school  work.  On  the  Otis  Group  Intelligence 
Test,  J.  B.  made  a  score  which  indicated  superior  general  intelligence. 
Although  his  performance  may  have  been  influenced  by  the  fact 
that  he  had  taken  this  test  in  the  autumn  of  1921,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  this  acquaintance  served  to  increase  his  score  materially. 
On  the  Terman  Group  Test  of  Mental  Ability  he  attained  the  stand- 
ard for  the  tenth  grade  and  was  shown  to  be  only  slightly  below  the 
normal  age  of  adults.    His  teachers  rated  him  as  normal  or  above 

[25] 


normal  in  general  intelligence,  and  stated  that  he  worked  slowly  but 
that  if  given  time,  he  could  usually  "get"  his  assignments.  His 
geometry  teacher  said,"  J.  B.  is  slow,  but  he  is  one  of  the  most  logical 
thinkers  in  my  class.  He  is  not  helpless.  He  knows  just  where  he  is 
'stuck'  and  what  he  wants  to  know."  J.  B.'s  performance  on  the  in- 
formal tests  and  his  reaction  to  the  remedial  training  in  both  silent 
reading  and  study  procedure  indicated  that  he  was  accustomed  to  do 
independent  thinking.  An  examination  of  his  test  papers  revealed 
that  very  few  of  his  responses  were  incorrect  and  that  his  failure  to 
make  higher  scores  was  due  to  slow  rather  than  to  inaccurate  work. 
Thus,  it  seems  clear  that  J.  B.  probably  possessed  a  capacity  to  do 
school  work  somewhat  above  that  of  the  average  student  in  the 
tenth  grade. 

Diagnosis  of  reading  ability.  J.  B.'s  scores  on  the  Monroe 
Standardized  Silent  Reading  Test  III  showed  that  he  was  able  to 
read  the  simple  exercises  of  this  test  with  reasonable  rapidity  and  with 
decided  accuracy.  However,  he  had  taken  the  test  about  a  year 
before  the  beginning  of  this  investigation  and  his  acquaintance  v/ith 
it  probably  served  to  increase  his  scores  slightly.  On  both  the  Thorn- 
dike-McCall  Reading  Scale  and  the  Haggerty  Achievement  Exami- 
nation in  Reading,  Sigma  3,  his  scores  were  much  below  the  standard 
for  his  grade.  On  the  Holley  Sentence  Vocabulary  Scale  his  score  was 
also  very  low.  Thus  it  appears  that  J.  B.  is  deficient  in  ability  to  read 
other  than  very  simple  material. 

A  further  investigation  into  J.  B.'s  reading  ability  by  means  of 
the  informal  tests  indicated  that  he  usually  read  slowly  and  was 
inaccurate  in  his  recognition  of  many  comimon  words.  For  example, 
when  reading  orally  he  called  "serve,"  "severe";  "through," 
"thought";  "though,"  "thought";  "aboard,"  "abroad."  He  was 
unable  to  pronounce  a  large  number  of  words  even  when  he  was 
familiar  with  the  meaning.  However  he  was  apparently  successful 
in  comprehending  a  paragraph  when  he  was  able  to  associate  correct 
meanings  with  the  words.  J.  B.  was  aware  of  his  deficiency  in  reading 
although  he  did  not  understand  the  exact  cause  of  it. 

Diagnosis  of  study  procedure.  J.  B.  reported  that  he  did  practic- 
ally all  of  his  studying  at  home,  beginning  as  soon  as  the  evening  meal 
was  over  and  continuing  until  eleven  or  twelve  o'clock.  He  was 
accustomed  to  study  in  the  living  room,  surrounded  by  other  mem- 
bers of  the  family,  and  frequently  stopped  to  enter  into  conversation 
for  a  short  time.    He  appeared  to  be  somewhat  unsystematic  in  his 

[26] 


procedure  and  reported  difficulty  in  concentrating  his  attention  upon 
his  work.  When  questioned  concerning  the  evaluation  of  items  in  an 
assignment  and  the  selection  of  those  of  major  importance,  he  stated 
that  in  chemistry  and  geometry,  he  usually  stressed  significant  topics 
but  that  in  the  other  subjects  all  of  the  material  seemed  equally  im- 
portant. Unless  handicapped  for  time,  he  continued  his  study  of  a 
lesson  until  he  completed  it  satisfactorily. 

Remedial  training  in  reading.  J.  B.  was  given  about  four  weeks 
of  training  in  silent  reading,  although  there  were  frequent  interrup- 
tions due  to  absence  from  school.  Emphasis  was  placed  upon 
increasing  his  ability  to  recognize  words  correctly  and  his  rate  of 
reading.  An  attempt  was  made  to  give  J.  B.  an  understanding  of  the 
nature  of  his  deficiencies,  and  he  was  urged  to  read  orally  and  to 
apply  rules  for  pronunciation,  syllabication  and  phonics. 

Results  of  remedial  training  in  reading.  At  the  end  of  the  train- 
ing period  J.  B.  was  again  tested  in  silent  reading  by  Monroe's 
Standardized  Silent  Reading  Test  III,  Form  2,  Thorndike-McCall 
Reading  Scale,  Form  3,  and  the  Burgess  Picture  Supplement  Scale, 
Form  2.    The  results  of  this  testing,  together  with  the  initial  scores 

are  given  below: 

Initial  Final  Grade 

Scores  Scores  Norms 
Monroe  Standardized  Silent  Reading  Test* 

Rate 86  89  92 

Comprehension 40  38  29 . 4 

Thorndike-McCall  Reading  Scale 51  60  62.9 

Burgess  Picture  Supplement  Scale 7  11  13 

*See  footnote  to  similar  table,  p.  23. 

The  gains  made  in  the  scores  on  the  Thorndike-McCall  Reading 
Scale  and  the  Burgess  Picture  Supplement  Scale  indicate  that  J.  B. 
made  material  progress  in  correcting  the  deficiencies  revealed  by  the 
diagnosis  of  reading  ability. 

R.emedial  training  in  study  procedure.  As  the  student  expressed 
no  choice  with  reference  to  the  subject  in  which  remedial  training  in 
study  procedure  should  be  given,  the  investigator  chose  English  II — 
language  and  composition.  Because  of  J.  B.'s  frequent  absences  from 
school,  the  training,  although  distributed  over  a  much  longer  period, 
amounted  to  only  three  weeks  and  was  probably  less  effective  be- 
cause of  the  interruptions. 

Results  of  remedial  training  in  study  procedure.  J.  B.'s  school 
work  was  uniformly  better  at  the  end  of  the  period  of  training  than 
it  had  been  during  the  first  semester.    This  improvement,  however, 

[27] 


may  have  been  due  to  increased  ability  in  silent  reading  and  to  more 
diligent  application  to  school  work  as  well  as  to  the  specific  training 
in  study  procedure. 

Summary.  The  following  conclusions  in  regard  to  J.  B.  seem 
justifiable: 

1.  J.  B.'s  unsatisfactory  school  work  does  not  appear  to  be  due 
to  a  lack  of  general  intelligence,  as  in  this  respect,  he  is  probably 
above  the  average. 

2.  The  outstanding  cause  for  his  poor  standing  in  school  is  his 
difficulty  in  reading  which  in  turn  is  due  to  incorrect  recognition  of 
words  and  to  the  lack  of  an  adequate  reading  vocabulary. 

3.  The  above  cause  is  supplemented  by  poor  health,  irregular 
attendance  at  school,  a  heavy  schedule  and  outside  work. 

4.  Remedial  instruction  in  reading  resulted  in  a  marked  increase 
in  reading  ability  as  measured  by  the  Thorndike-McCall  Reading 
Scale  and  the  Burgess  Picture  Supplement  Scale. 

CASE  m.    L.  W.    GRADE  XH. 

School  history.  L.  W.'s  age  at  the  beginning  of  the  investigation 
was  19  years  and  4  months.  He  entered  the  eleventh  grade  of  the 
University  High  School  in  the  fall  of  1921,  having  received  two 
years  of  secondary  training  in  another  school.  In  elementary  school, 
although  his  instruction  had  been  of  a  rather  high  quality,  he  had 
repeated  one  or  two  grades;  and  in  high  school  his  record  had  been 
distinctly  unsatisfactory.  During  his  first  year  in  the  University 
High  School  he  failed  in  two  courses,  and  received  a  condition  in  one 
course  at  the  close  of  the  first  semester  of  the  school  year  1922-23. 
Although  L.  W.  stated  that  he  wished  to  enter  the  University  of 
Illinois  and  study  commerce  it  appeared  doubtful  whether  this  desire 
was  sufficiently  definite  to  exert  much  influence  upon  his  efforts  to 
learn.  He  appeared  somewhat  indifferent  to  his  low  standing,  and 
his  teachers  expressed  the  opinion  that  he  failed  to  apply  himself 
and  that  he  frequently  attempted  to  bluff  in  class  work  by  talking 
around  a  topic  when  he  had  no  ideas  to  present. 

Disturbing  factors.  L.  W.  was  frequently  absent  from  school, 
occasionally  on  account  of  illness,  but  usually  for  causes  which  were 
more  or  less  trivial.  He  smoked  a  great  deal  and  his  apparent  listless- 
ness  and  lack  of  energy  were  due,  in  the  opinion  of  some  of  his  teachers, 
to  the  enervating  effects  of  this  habit. 

[28] 


Capacity  to  do  school  work.  In  the  tests  measuring  capacity  to 
do  school  work,  the  performances  of  L.  W.  were  inconsistent.  He 
made  a  low  score  on  the  Terman  Group  Test  of  Mental  Ability  and 
was  average  or  above  on  the  Otis  Group  Intelligence  Scale.  In  view 
of  the  reports  of  his  teachers  and  of  the  other  information  secured, 
it  appeared  that  L.  W.  was  not  mentally  below  normal  general  in- 
telligence and  that  if  he  made  the  effort  he  could  do  much  better 
school  work. 

Diagnosis  of  reading  ability.  All  of  L.  W.'s  scores  on  the  reading 
tests  were  below  standard.  Both  the  formal  and  informal  tests  in- 
dicated a  lack  of  comprehension  and  a  slow  rate  of  reading.  An  ex- 
amination of  his  eye  movements  revealed  a  very  narrow  span  of 
recognition  as  well  as  many  regressive  movements.  He  appeared  also 
to  be  somewhat  deficient  in  vocabulary. 

Diagnosis  of  study  procedure.  L,  W.  stated  that  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  spend  about  two  hours  each  evening  in  the  preparation  of 
his  lessons,  but  that  he  had  no  regular  schedule  or  system.  He  studied 
in  the  living  room  surrounded  by  other  members  of  his  family,  but 
stopped  frequently  to  do  other  things  and  found  it  somewhat  diffi- 
cult to  keep  his  mind  upon  his  work.  Observation  during  the  period 
of  remedial  training  indicated  that  his  procedure  was  haphazard  and 
his  study  superficial.  He  did  not  appear  to  recognize  that  his  method 
was  ineffective  nor  to  make  any  special  attempt  to  improve  his  proce- 
dure. Although  he  was  accustomed  to  underline  sentences  that  seemed 
important  he  seldom  selected  the  principal  points  in  the  paragraph. 

Remedial  training  in  reading.  The  remedial  training  extended 
over  a  period  of  nearly  five  weeks,  but  was  frequently  interrupted 
by  L.  W.'s  absences  from  school.  He  was  given,  in  addition  to  the 
exercises  for  increasing  rate  of  reading,  exercises  designed  especially 
to  increase  his  span  of  recognition,  to  eliminate  regressive  eye  move- 
ments and  to  increase  his  attention  to  details. 

Results  of  remedial  training  in  reading.  The  scores  given  below 
show  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  comprehension  score  on  the 
Monroe  Standardized  Silent  Reading  Test  III,  L.  W.  made  a  com- 
mendable improvement  in  the  phases  of  reading  measured  by  the 
tests.  In  view  of  his  second  comprehension  score,  the  one  made  on 
the  first  trial  was  probably  an  inaccurate  measure  of  his  ability. 
It  should  be  noted  that  he  made  progress  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  he 
had  shown  no  interest  in  the  training  designed  for  his  improvement. 

[29] 


Initial 

Final 

Grade 

Scores 

Scores 

Norms 

11 

89 

104 

28 

15 

33.1 

49 

54 

66.8 

5 

8 

15 

Monroe  Standardized  Silent  Reading  Test* 

Rate 

Comprehension 

Thorndike-McCall  Reading  Scale 

Burgess  Picture  Supplement  Scale 

*See  footnote  to  similar  table  on  p.  23. 


Remedial  training  in  study  procedure.  The  remedial  training  in 
study  procedure  was  unsatisfactory.  Because  of  L.  W.'s  indifference, 
amounting  almost  to  antagonism,  and  because  of  his  slow  rate  of 
reading  it  was  not  possible  to  carry  out  the  training  which  was 
followed  in  the  case  of  the  other  students.  His  responses  to  sugges- 
tions were  very  perfunctory.  Furthermore  his  frequent  absences 
greatly  reduced  the  number  of  experimental  periods.  His  teachers 
were  not  able  to  report  any  improvement  in  his  school  work. 

Summary.  The  following  statements  were  made  in  regard  to 
the  work  with  L.  W.: 

1.  L.  W.'s  low  standing  cannot  be  explained  by  a  lack  of  capacity 
to  do  school  work. 

2.  Irregular  attendance,  indifference,  lack  of  ability  to  read, 
and  superficial  and  haphazard  study  procedure  are  the  most  potent 
causes  of  L.  W.'s  failure  to  do  satisfactory  school  work. 

3.  Although  given  under  unfavorable  conditions,  the  remedial 
training  increased  L.  W.'s  ability  to  read  silently.  There  was  no 
marked  improvement  in  his  school  work,  but  it  is  likely  that  this 
was  due  to  his  irregular  attendance  and  to  his  attitude  of  indifference. 

CASE  IV.  H.  W.  GRADE  X. 
School  history.  H.  W.,  whose  age  at  the  beginning  of  the  in- 
vestigation was  18  years  and  6  months,  had  received  her  elementary 
training  in  a  small  rural  school.  The  first  year  of  her  high-school 
work  was  done  at  the  University  High  School  and,  according  to  the 
testimony  of  her  teachers,  her  preparation  was  not  noticeably  in- 
adequate. With  the  exception  of  one  absence  when  in  the  seventh 
grade,  she  had  never  been  away  from  school  for  any  extended  period, 
and  she  had  never  failed  of  promotion.  During  her  first  year  in  high 
school  she  registered  in  four  courses  and  received  a  grade  of  D  in  all 
of  them  except  sewing,  in  which  her  standing  was  C.  At  the  time  of 
the  investigation  she  was  enrolled  in  ancient  history,  geometry  I, 
French  I  and  English  II.    During  the  first  semester  she  had  taken 

[30] 


the  same  subjects.  Her  grades  at  the  end  of  the  semester  were  D, 
D,  E,  and  D.  Her  teachers  reported  that  H.  W.  tried  hard  and 
seemed  conscientious  in  performing  the  tasks  assigned  to  her.  She 
had  employed  a  tutor  in  French  in  which  she  had  failed  during  the 
first  semester. 

Disturbing  factors.  Several  years  ago  H.  W.  was  injured  by  a 
fall  from  her  pony  and  has  been  afflicted  ever  since  with  nervousness. 
A  few  months  prior  to  this  investigation  she  suffered  a  nervous 
breakdown,  and  still  found  it  difficult  to  keep  her  hands  still  or  her 
face  from  twitching  almost  constantly.  Her  geometry  teacher  made 
this  remark,  "H.  W.  cannot  hold  a  compass  or  protractor  steady 
enough  to  do  accurate  construction  work,  so  in  the  laboratory  work, 
where  poor  students  often  do  well,  H.  W.  is  as  poor  as  in  formal 
geometry."  During  the  investigation  she  was  frequently  absent 
from  school  on  account  of  illness. 

Capacity  to  do  school  work.  H.  W.'s  performance  on  the  group 
intelligence  tests  indicated  a  mental  age  of  about  14  years.  However, 
her  teachers  expressed  the  opinion  that  her  capacity  to  do  school 
work  was  somewhat  higher  than  represented  by  such  a  mental  age, 
and  that  probably  her  standing  on  the  group  test  was  lowered  be- 
cause of  her  physical  condition  and  because  of  the  fact  that  under 
strange  conditions  she  seldom  seemed  able  to  do  herself  justice. 
Her  performance  on  the  informal  tests,  after  she  became  acquainted 
with  the  investigator,  tended  to  corroborate  this  opinion  of  her 
teachers.  Therefore,  it  is  believed  that  H.  W.  should  be  classified  as 
possessing  normal  mental  capacity  to  do  school  work. 

Diagnosis  of  reading  ability.  The  standardized  silent  reading 
tests  did  not  reveal  significant  deficiencies  in  silent  reading,  but 
H.  W.'s  performance  on  the  informal  silent  reading  tests  tended  to 
show  a  lack  of  attention  to  details.  She  appeared  to  be  inclined  to 
read  rapidly^,  but  in  case  the  material  was  at  all  difficult  her  com- 
prehension was  very  poor. 

Diagnosis  of  study  procedure.  H.  W.'s  general  procedure  for 
studying  her  lessons  was  good.  She  seemed  to  be  subjected  to  few, 
if  any,  disturbances  and  had  a  fairly  regular  routine.  Although  in- 
sisting that  she  seldom  stopped  her  studying  to  do  other  things,  she 


'H.  W.'s  poor  rate  score  on  the  Monroe  Standardized  Silent  Reading  Test  III 
contradicts  this  conclusion,  but  this  score  was  found  to  be  in  disagreement  with  her 
performance  on  all  other  reading  tests.  It  is  thought  that  the  strangeness  of  the  test 
caused  her  to  work  much  more  slowly  than  normal. 

[31] 


admitted  that  she  had  difficulty  in  concentrating  her  attention  on 
certain  school  subjects.  She  showed  some  ability  to  think  independ- 
ently about  her  lessons  and  attempted  to  pick  out  the  more  import- 
ant statements  in  an  assignment.  She  failed,  however,  to  get  the 
meaning  of  what  she  read,  or  to  review  topics  and  organize  information 
effectively. 

Remedial  training  in  reading.  In  the  remedial  training  in  read- 
ing, emphasis  was  placed  on  comprehension.  Although  the  tests 
used  do  not  measure  adequately  the  particular  ability  which  the 
remedial  training  was  intended  to  engender,  the  scores  indicate  that 

the  training  was  effective. 

Initial  Final  Grade 

Scores  Scores  Norms 
Monroe  Standardized  Silent  Reading  Test* 

Rate 77  122  92 

Comprehension 28                    34  29.4 

Thorndike-McCall  Reading  Scalef ..  ...  .... 

Burgess  Picture  Supplement  Scale 15                    16  13 

*See  footnote  to  similar  table  on  p.  23. 

fThe  Thorndike-McCall  Reading  Scale  was  not  given  to  this  student. 


Remedial  training  in  study  procedure.  At  H.  W.'s  request, 
remedial  training  in  study  procedure  was  based  on  the  assignments 
in  ancient  history.  Her  attention  was  called  to  her  deficiencies  in 
study  procedure  and  instruction  was  given  in  reviewing  and  sum- 
marizing. H.  W.'s  attitude  toward  the  remedial  training  was  ex- 
cellent and  she  attempted  to  carry  out  the  suggestions  to  the  best 
of  her  ability.  Near  the  close  of  the  training  period  she  received  a 
grade  of  A,  the  first  during  her  high-school  career.  As  her  standing 
at  the  beginning  of  the  experimental  period  was  approximately  D, 
this  represents  a  very  marked  improvement.  Although  the  training 
which  she  received  both  in  reading  and  in  the  technique  of  study 
doubtless  was  a  potent  factor  in  bringing  about  this  improvement, 
the  zeal  and  interest  which  H.  W.  came  to  exhibit  in  her  work  also 
contributed  to  her  success. 

Summary.  The  following  conclusions  are  made  in  regard  toH.  W. : 

1.  H.  W.  is  probably  not  lacking  in  capacity  to  do  school  work. 

2.  Her  physical  condition  is  a  handicap,  but  should  not  be  con- 
sidered the  only  cause  of  her  unsatisfactory  work. 

3.  Among  the  most  important  deficiencies  in  her  study  pro- 
cedure are  failure  to  comprehend  difficult  material,  lack  of  attention 
to  details  and  inability  to  summarize  and  organize  her  material. 

[32] 


4.  The  remedial  training  was  unusually  successful  in  increasing 
H.  W.'s  standing  in  ancient  history. 

CASE  V.    T.  H.     GRADE  K. 

School  history.  At  the  beginning  of  the  investigation  T.  H. 
was  14  years  of  age.  In  the  judgment  of  his  teachers  his  preparation 
for  high-school  work  was  inadequate,  and  it  was  found  that  most  of 
his  elementary-school  training  had  been  received  in  schools  of  rather 
low  standing.  He  was  enrolled  in  algebra,  English,  manual  training, 
and  Latin  I,  and  received  semester  grades  of  D,  D,  D,  and  E,  re- 
spectively. He  stated  that  he  liked  algebra  better  than  any  other 
subject  studied,  but  that  he  disliked  Latin  very  much,  "because  he 
could  not  see  anything  to  it."  T.  H.  is  large,  clumsy,  apparently 
rather  lazy,  and,  in  the  judgment  of  his  teachers,  not  interested  in 
his  school  work  nor  inclined  to  make  much  effort  to  study  his  lessons. 

Disturbing  factors.  Disturbing  factors  such  as  those  which  have 
been  prominent  with  the  other  subjects  did  not  appear  to  apply  to 
T.  H.  His  attendance  was  regular,  and  his  health  excellent.  He  was 
not  up  late  at  night  nor  did  his  home  life  seem  to  interfere  with 
effective  study. 

Capacity  to  do  school  work.  The  scores  which  T.  H.  made  on 
the  group  intelligence  tests,  and  the  other  information  which  was 
secured,  indicate  that  he  should  be  classed  as  having  very  low  normal 
capacity  to  do  school  work.  It  was  reported,  however,  that  occasion- 
ally, especially  in  mathematics,  he  gave  evidence  of  a  much  higher 
capacity. 

Diagnosis  of  reading  ability.  The  standardized  tests  showed 
that  T.  H.  was  deficient  in  ability  to  read  silently.  His  most  signifi- 
cant weaknesses  appeared  to  be  a  narrow  span  of  recognition,  re- 
gressive and  irregular  eye  movements,  inaccurate  recognition  of 
words,  limited  reading  vocabulary,  and  failure  or  inability  to  think 
about  what  he  had  read. 

Diagnosis  of  study  procedure.  T.  H.'s  deficiencies  in  reading 
were  so  marked  that  effective  study  was  not  possible.  However, 
even  if  he  had  possessed  satisfactory  reading  ability,  he  probably 
would  not  have  been  efficient  as  a  student,  because  he  had  no  regular 
time  nor  place  for  the  study  of  his  lessons  and  was  accustomed  to 
follow  a  very  haphazard  procedure. 

Remedial  training  in  reading.  Remedial  training  in  reading  was 
continued    for    approximately    five    weeks.     Special    emphasis    was 

[33] 


placed  upon  increasing  the  span  of  recognition,  eliminating  regressive 
eye  movements  and  increasing  meaning  vocabulary.  T.  H.'s  errors 
were  pointed  out  to  him  and  an  effort  was  made  to  enlist  his  co- 
operation in  eliminating  them.  He  showed  some  interest  in  reading 
simple  books  of  travel  and  adventure  and  there  seemed  a  noticeable 
increase  in  his  ability  to  read  this  type  of  material.  The  repetition 
of  the  tests  at  the  end  of  the  training  period  showed  commendable 
gains  but  his  reading  ability  was  still  below  that  required  for  effective 
study. 

Initial  Final  Grade 

Scores  Scores  Norms 
Monroe  Standardized  Silent  Reading  Test* 

Rate 77  106  86 

Comprehension 12  16  26.6 

Thorndike-McCall  Reading  Scale 45  54  61.5 

Burgess  Picture  Supplement  Scale 6  8  12 

*See  footnote  to  similar  table  on  p.  23. 

Remedial  training  in  study  procedure.  T.  H.  expressed  no 
preference  as  to  the  subject  in  which  the  remedial  training  in  study 
procedure  should  be  given,  and  English  was  selected  by  the  investi- 
gator. This  training,  largely  because  of  his  inability  to  read,  was  not 
considered  satisfactory.  Furthermore,  T.  H.  was  not  interested  and 
seemed  to  resent  being  asked  to  devote  four  periods  a  week  to  this 
work.  It,  therefore,  was  not  surprising  that  his  teacher  was  unable 
to  report  any  improvement  in  the  class  work. 

Summary.  The  results  of  the  experimental  training  with  T.  H. 
may  be  briefly  stated: 

1.  The  most  potent  cause  of  T.  H.'s  low  standing  in  his  studies 
probably  was  his  lack  of  interest.  However,  his  capacity  to  do  school 
work  was  considered  slightly  below  normal. 

2.  T.  H.  was  very  deficient  in  silent  reading. 

3.  The  remedial  training  in  his  case  was  less  effective  than  in 
that  of  the  other  subjects.  This  was  due  largely,  it  is  believed,  to 
his  attitude  of  indifference  and  even  of  antagonism. 

CASE  VI.  M.  F.  GRADE  K. 
School  history.  At  the  beginning  of  this  investigation  M.  F.'s 
chronological  age  was  13  years  and  7  months.  She  had  skipped  the 
sixth  grade  and  was  considered  adequately  prepared  for  high-school 
work.  She  was  studying  English  I,  Latin  I,  algebra  I,  and  musical 
appreciation,  and  had  made  grades  of  D  in  each  subject  at  the  end 
of  the  first  semester.    Her  attitude  toward  school  work  appeared  to 

[34] 


be  one  of  indifference  as  she  displayed  no  feeling  of  responsibility 
with  reference  to  assignments  or  to  other  requests  made  by  her 
teachers.  She  was  sometimes  guilty  of  bluffing  and  did  not  appear 
to  be  greatly  concerned  about  her  standing. 

Disturbing  factors.  M.  F.'s  health  has  been  excellent  and  her 
home  conditions  could  have  been  conducive  toward  study.  However, 
she  is  an  only  child  of  indulgent  parents,  is  permitted  to  attend 
movies  frequently,  and  apparently  is  not  being  urged  by  her  parents 
in  any  way  to  give  more  time  to  the  preparation  of  her  lessons. 

Capacity  to  do  school  work.  Although  the  evidence  gathered 
with  reference  to  M.  F.'s  capacity  to  do  school  work  was  not  entirely 
consistent,  it  appeared  that  she  should  be  considered  above  normal. 
There  was  no  indication  that  she  possessed  superior  intelligence,  but 
on  the  other  hand,  there  certainly  was  no  evidence  that  her  unsatis- 
factory school  work  was  due  to  lack  of  capacity  to  learn. 

Diagnosis  of  reading  ability.  M.  F.  was  found  to  read  rapidly 
enough  but  was  poor  in  comprehension.  The  causes  for  this  condi- 
tion appeared  to  be  failure  to  give  attention  to  the  material,  particu- 
larly the  details,  and  to  think  intelligently  about  what  had  been  read. 
This  conclusion  is  substantiated  by  the  fact  that  her  score  on  the 
Holley  Sentence  Vocabulary  Test  was  slightly  above  the  norm  for 
that  grade. 

Diagnosis  of  study  procedure.  M.  F.  appeared  to  have  no 
regular  time  and  place  for  the  study  of  her  lessons.  She  admitted 
that  she  experienced  difficulty  in  keeping  her  mind  from  wandering 
during  recitation,  but  insisted  that  this  was  not  the  case  when  she 
was  studying.  In  algebra,  which  was  the  subject  selected  for  remedial 
training,  she  seldom  made  any  attempt  to  understand  the  illustrative 
exercises  given  in  the  text  but  depended  entirely  upon  the  teacher's 
explanations  in  class.  In  doing  exercises  she  appeared  to  manipulate 
the  symbols  somewhat  at  random  in  an  attempt  to  secure  a  satis- 
factory result.  She  admitted  that  she  usually  stopped  studying  be- 
fore she  felt  that  she  had  learned  her  lesson. 

Remedial  training  in  reading.  M.  F.  was  somewhat  indifferent 
toward  the  remedial  training  both  in  reading  and  in  study  procedure 
and  was  absent  frequently  because  of  forgotten  appointments,  or  of 
other  school  activities.  The  remedial  training  in  reading  was  directed 
toward  the  elimination  of  the  deficiencies  in  comprehension,  but, 
as  it  was  found  that  the  rate  of  reading  was  being  reduced,  some  train- 

[35] 


ing  in  rapid  reading  was  added.  M.  F.  became  somewhat  interested 
in  this  instruction  and  made  an  effort  to  improve  her  daily  record. 
When  the  silent  reading  tests  were  repeated  at  the  end  of  the  experi- 
mental period  she  had  made  very  satisfactory  progress  in  compre- 
hension. 

Initial  Final  Grade 

Scores  Scores  Norms 

Monroe  Standardized  Silent  Reading  Test* 

Rate 86  89  86 

Comprehension 19  26  26 . 6 

Thorndike-McCall  Reading  Scale 47  63  61.5 

Burgess  Picture  Supplement  Scale 10  ...  12 

*See  footnote  to  similar  table,  p.  23. 

Remedial  training  in  study  procedure.  x'\pproximately  four 
weeks  were  devoted  with  M.  F.  to  remedial  training  in  study  proced- 
ure in  algebra.  At  the  end  of  this  period  her  work  was  of  B  grade  but 
her  performance  was  still  somewhat  erratic.  Her  teacher  stated  that 
she  was  gaining  in  a  sense  of  responsibility  toward  her  assignments 
and  that  failures  due  to  carelessness  and  indifference  were  becoming 
fewer.  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  the  improvement  exhibited 
by  M.  F.  was  not  due  wholly  to  an  improved  technique  of  study,  for 
one  of  the  chief  causes  of  her  poor  standing,  as  pointed  out  in  the 
beginning,  was  lack  of  application.  In  the  course  of  the  training  she 
began  to  take  an  interest  in  her  school  work  and  appeared  to  be  mak- 
ing a  much  greater  effort  to  prepare  her  lessons. 

Summary.  As,  a  result  of  the  study  made  of  M.  F.  the  following 
conclusions  are  apparent: 

1.  In  the  case  of  M.  F.,  unsatisfactory  school  work  was  not  due 
to  lack  of  capacity  to  learn. 

2.  Although  M.  F.'s  attitude  toward  school  work  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  investigation  was  one  of  indifference,  and  she  made  little 
effort  to  prepare  her  lessons,  she  was  handicapped  by  a  lack  of  ability 
to  read  comprehensively  and  by  a  haphazard  procedure  of  study. 

3.  By  the  end  of  the  training  period,  M.  F.  had  raised  her  stand- 
ing in  algebra  from  D  to  B.  This,  however,  was  due  in  part  to  her 
changed   attitude,   which   was   probably   an   indirect   result   of  the 

training. 

CASE  Vn.     M.  W.     GRADE  IX. 

School  history.  M.  W.,  who  at  the  beginning  of  the  investigation 
was  16  years  and  10  months  of  age,  received  her  early  elementary 
schooling  in  a  small  village  where  the  quality  of  instruction  probably 

[36] 


was  not  very  good.  Beginning  with  the  sixth  grade,  however,  she 
attended  a  school  which  had  a  fairly  high  standing.  She  failed  of 
promotion  in  the  third  and  in  the  sixth  grades,  but  in  the  latter  case 
the  non-promotion  was  due  largely  to  absence  from  school  for  several 
months  on  account  of  illness.  During  the  first  semester  of  the  year 
1922-23,  M.  W.  was  enrolled  in  English  I,  algebra  I,  French  I,  and 
cooking.  She  received  grades  of  C,  D,  E,  and  D,  respectively,  in 
these  subjects.  According  to  the  testimonies  of  her  teachers,  M.  W. 
applies  herself  diligently.  After  graduating  from  high  school  she 
expects  to  enter  the  University  of  Illinois  for  the  purpose  of  specializ- 
ing in  Home  Economics. 

Disturbing  factors.  M.  W.  is  in  excellent  health  and  has  not 
been  absent  since  entering  school  in  September.  She  resides  with  an 
aunt,  her  mother  having  died  when  she  was  very  young,  and  her  home 
conditions  are  not  such  as  to  interfere  with  school  work.  She  appears 
to  be  self-conscious,  rather  timid  about  reciting  in  class,  and  becomes 
easily  discouraged. 

Capacity  to  do  school  work.  The  group  intelligence  tests  in- 
dicated a  mental  age  of  between  13  and  14  years.  On  the  basis  of 
this  and  of  other  information,  the  investigator  believes  that,  al- 
though she  is  near  the  border  line  between  the  inferior  and  normal 
groups,  she  should  be  reported  as  inferior  in  capacity  to  learn.  A 
marked  deficiency  in  ability  to  remember  ideas  is  indicated  both  by 
the  tests  and  by  certain  difficulties  in  studying  algebra. 

Diagnosis  of  reading  ability.  All  of  M.  W.'s  scores  on  the 
standardized  silent  reading  tests  show  her  as  below  the  norms  for  the 
ninth  grade.  On  the  Burgess  Picture  Supplement  Scale  her  standing 
approximated  the  norm  for  the  fourth  grade.  Although  her  scores 
on  the  Holley  Sentence  Vocabulary  Scale  were  slightly  above  the 
standard  for  the  ninth  grade,  the  informal  tests  revealed  that  she 
possessed  a  very  limited  reading  vocabulary.  In  addition  to  being 
deficient  in  her  vocabulary,  M.  W.  failed  to  give  attention  to  the 
content  of  material  read  and  to  details.  She  also  made  many  errors 
in  answering  thought  questions  based  upon  the  reading  selections. 

Diagnosis  of  study  procedure.  Although  M.  W.  was  accustomed 
to  study  in  the  living  room  surrounded  by  other  members  of  her 
family,  it  did  not  appear  that  this  constituted  a  serious  disturbing 
factor.  She  admitted  that  she  had  no  regular  schedule  for  studying 
the  different  subjects  and  would  drop  one  lesson  after  a  little  time  and 

[37] 


take  up  another.  One  of  her  teachers  remarked  that,  "her  study 
habits  were  merely  consistent  with  her  personal  habits."  M.  W.  was 
described  as  flighty  in  her  interests  and  in  her  ability  to  center  her 
attention  on  one  point.  She  appeared  to  have  great  difficulty  in 
remembering  facts  and  in  applying  abstract  ideas.  In  her  work  in 
algebra,  her  procedure,  which  consisted  largely  of  trying  various 
manipulations  of  symbols  in  the  hope  that  a  satisfactory  answer 
would  in  some  way  be  secured,  gave  special  evidence  of  this  diffi- 
culty. 

Remedial  training  in  reading.  The  remedial  training  in  silent 
reading  extended  over  a  period  of  five  weeks  with  very  few  absences. 
Exercises,  in  addition  to  those  designed  to  correct  the  deficiencies 
enumerated,  were  given  in  order  to  counteract  the  lowering  of  rate 
of  reading  which  resulted  from  the  emphasis  placed  upon  defects  in 
comprehension.  Previous  to  the  remedial  training,  M.  W.  had  cared 
little  for  reading  but  during  the  experimental  period  her  interest  was 
aroused  and  she  read  two  books  recommended  by  the  investigator. 
She  seemed  very  much  interested  in  improving  her  ability  to  read 
and  made  a  determined  effort  to  correct  the  defects  pointed  out  to 
her.  When  the  silent  reading  tests  were  repeated  at  the  close  of  the 
training  period  the  scores  indicated  that  she  had  made  very  com- 
mendable progress,  due  in  part  doubtless  to  the  effort  and  enthusiasm 
which  she  put  into  her  work.  It  should  be  noted  also  that  the  train- 
ing period  was  slightly  longer  in  her  case  than  in  that  of  the  other 

subjects. 

Initial  Final  Grade 

Scores  Scores  Norms 
Monroe  Standardized  Silent  Reading  Test* 

Rate 77  122  86 

Comprehension 17  32  26 . 6 

Thorndike-McCall  Reading  Scale 49  60  61.5 

Burgess  Picture  Supplement  Scale.  .^ 7  13  12 

•See  footnote  to  similar  table  on  p.  23. 

Remedial  training  in  study  procedure.  M.  W.'s  deficiencies  in 
the  fundamentals  of  algebra  were  so  great  that  it  was  not  possible 
to  give  much  attention  to  the  technique  of  study.  A  large  portion  of 
each  training  period  was  spent  in  reviewing  previous  work  and  in 
looking  up  formulas  and  other  items  of  information.  She  seemed  also 
to  be  handicapped  by  a  special  deficiency  in  grasping  abstract  ideas. 
In  spite  of  the  fact  that  she  was  interested  and  made  a  conscientious 
effort  to  improve,  it  is  doubtful,  in  the  opinion  of  the  investigator, 

[38] 


that  she  received  any  direct  benefit  in  her  work  in  algebra  from  the 
training  given. 

Summary.  The  following  statements  in  regard  to  the  work 
with  M.  W.  seem  justified: 

1.  M.  W.  was  found  to  be  deficient  in  capacity  to  do  school  work, 
particularly  in  applying  abstract  ideas  in  such  a  field  as  algebra. 
She  is  probably  not  deficient  to  the  extent  that  success  in  certain 
other  school  subjects  is  impossible. 

2.  M.  W.  was  found  to  be  conspicuously  deficient  in  ability  to 
read  silently. 

3.  The  deficiencies  in  capacity  to  learn  and  in  ability  to  read 
silently  were  supplemented  by  the  lack  of  an  efficient  study  procedure. 

4.  M.  W.  responded  to  the  remedial  training  in  reading  in  a  very 
satisfactory  way.  In  addition  to  increasing  her  scores  on  standardized 
tests  she  developed  an  interest  in  reading. 

5.  The  remedial  training  in  algebra  was  only  slightly,  if  at  all, 
effective.  This  was  due  to  the  lack  of  prerequisite  information  and 
to  an  apparent  deficiency  in  capacity  to  learn  algebra. 

CASE  Vm.    W.  J.    GRADE  IX. 

Introductory  statement.  As  W.  J.  was  very  frequently  absent 
from  school  during  the  last  weeks  of  the  experimental  period,  the 
remedial  training  in  study  procedure  was  not  completed  and  the 
silent-reading  tests  were  not  given  a  second  time.  Thus,  the  report 
in  his  case  is  decidedly  incomplete. 

School  history.  At  the  beginning  of  the  investigation,  W.  J. 
was  16  years  and  6  months  of  age.  He  had  repeated  the  first  and 
eighth  grades  in  elementary  school  and  was  considered  by  his  teach- 
ers very  inadequately  prepared  for  high-school  work.  These  failures 
probably  were  due  to  his  lack  of  effort  and  of  capacity  to  learn  rather 
than  to  the  quality  of  instruction  which  he  had  received.  During  the 
first  semester  in  high  school  he  studied  English  I,  Latin  I,  manual 
training,  and  algebra  I,  failing  in  all  of  these  subjects.  He  seemed  to 
lack  ambition  and  a  definite  purpose,  made  little  effort  to  study,  and 
apparently  was  attending  school  chiefly  as  a  result  of  parental  com- 
pulsion. One  of  his  teachers  stated,  "W.  J.  is  listless  and  uninter- 
ested in  general.    If  a  thing  is  not  easy  to  do  he  doesn't  do  it." 

Capacity  to  learn.  According  to  the  group  intelligence  tests  W.  J.'s 
mental  age  was  only  slightly  above  12  years.  This  is  corroborated  by 
the  opinion  ot  his  teachers  and  by  the  additional  information  secured. 

[39] 


Diagnosis  of  reading  ability.  W.  J.  was  found  to  be  very  deficient 
in  reading.  His  comprehension  score  on  the  Monroe  Standardized 
Silent  Reading  Test  was  zero,  and  his  scores  on  many  of  the  other 
tests  were  not  above  the  standard  for  the  sixth  grade.  His  eye  move- 
ments were  irregular  and  regressive,  he  had  a  very  narrow  span  of 
recognition,  and  was  deficient  in  vocabulary. 

Diagnosis  of  study  procedure.  In  practically  all  phases  of 
study  procedure,  W.  J.  was  found  deficient.  He  studied  in  the  living 
room  surrounded  by  other  members  of  his  family  and  was  accustomed 
to  stop  occasionally  to  engage  in  the  conversation.  He  had  no  regular 
hour  in  which  he  prepared  his  lessons  and  confessed  that  he  usually 
studied  one  for  a  time  and  then  took  up  another,  returning  later  to 
the  first  one.  He  apparently  made  no  attempt  to  select  the  important 
points  in  an  assignment  and  passed  over  anything  that  he  did  not 
understand,  expecting  that  it  would  be  explained  by  his  teacher  in 
class. 

Summary.  The  following  brief  summary  is  made  concerning  the 
work  of  W.  J. 

The  most  fundamental  cause  for  W.  J.'s  unsatisfactory  school 
work  is  lack  of  capacity  to  learn.  This  is  supplemented  by  a  lack  of 
interest  and  by  other  deficiencies  due  probably  to  his  subnormal 
mentality. 


[40] 


CHAPTER  IV 

DIRECTIONS    USED    IN    REMEDIAL    TRAINING    IN 
STUDY  PROCEDURE 

Teacher  activity  versus  student  activity.  In  the  preparation  of 
the  directions  used  in  the  remedial  training  in  study  procedure,  a 
distinction  was  made  between  the  activity  of  the  teacher  and  that  of 
the  learner.  A  student  is  educated  only  by  his  mental  and  physical 
activities.  What  the  teacher  does  can  affect  the  outcome  of  the  edu- 
cative process  only  indirectly  through  stimulating  and  guiding  the 
learning  activities  of  the  student. 

The  directions  recorded  in  this  chapter,  were  designed  to  de- 
scribe general  procedures,  some  of  which  are  essential,  others  con- 
tributory to  effective  study.  However,  it  should  be  recognized  that 
study,  except  in  the  case  of  acquiring  motor  control  and  memorizing, 
cannot  be  reduced  to  a  mechanical  procedure  and  success  will  de- 
pend in  part  upon  the  ingenuity  of  the  learner  in  meeting  new  and 
unusual  situations.  The  learner,  however,  may  build  for  future  suc- 
cess by  adopting  those  general  procedures  which  tend  to  promote 
successful  learning.  When  difficulties  are  encountered,  the  teacher 
can  be  of  assistance  by  giving  appropriate  suggestions  and  by  stimu- 
lating the  learner  to  make  further  efforts. 

Sources  of  directions  for  study.  The  directions  for  study  listed 
In  the  following  pages  were  derived  from  four  sources: 

1.  An  examination  was  made  of  much  of  the  voluminous  litera- 
ture relating  to  the  learning  process,  and  special  attention  given  to 
all  material  dealing  with  supervised  study  and  methods  of  teaching 
the  high-school  subjects  with  which  we  were  concerned. 

2.  The  teachers  and  supervisors  of  the  various  subjects  in  the 
University  High  School  were  consulted. 

3.  Several  students  in  the  University  High  School,  who  were 
recognized  as  being  conspicuously  successful  in  their  school  work, 
were  interviewed  in  regard  to  the  procedures  they  were  accustomed 
to  follow  in  their  studying. 

4.  In  the  case  of  algebra  and  history,  additional  help  was  ob- 
tained by  means  of  a  questionnaire  addressed  to  the  teachers  of  these 
subjects  in  high  schools  of  Illinois. 

[41] 


The  directions  are  not  the  result  of  any  statistical  inquiry  into 
these  sources,  nor  have  they  been  scientifically  evaluated.  They 
merely  represent  the  judgment  of  the  writers  after  utilizing  the 
sources  enumerated  above. 

Differentiation  in  directions  corresponding  to  differences  in 
subject-matter.  A  few  general  directions  were  formulated  which 
appear  to  apply  to  all  the  high-school  subjects  dealt  with  in  this  in- 
vestigation. As  differences  in  the  learning  process  involved  in  the 
several  subjects  are  sufficiently  marked  so  that  many  directions 
useful  in  studying  one  subject  do  not  apply  to  another,  specific  di- 
rections were  prepared  also  for  each  subject. 

GENERAL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  STUDYi 
Introductory  statement.  Successful  study  is  difficult  in  a  room 
which  is  not  warm,  well-lighted,  well-ventilated  and  otherwise 
physically  comfortable.  Successful  study  is  also  difficult  in  a  room 
where  there  are  other  persons,  or  where  there  are  disturbing  noises 
or  objects.  Thus,  the  first  step  is  to  provide  a  physical  environment 
which  will  not  interfere  with  effective  study. 

1.  Make  out  a  daily  schedule  in  which  you  assign  a  regular 
time  and  place  for  the  study  of  each  subject. 

2.  Plan  to  study  an  assignment  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  is 
made,  then  review  the  lesson  briefly  just  before  going  to  class.  Do 
not  wait  to  study  a  lesson  until  just  before  class,  because  you  will 
have  difficulty  later  in  remembering  what  you  study. 

3.  Before  you  start  studying  a  lesson  collect  all  of  the  texts, 
reference  books  and  other  material  which  you  will  need  so  that  your 
work  will  not  be  interrupted. 

4.  Begin  working  as  soon  as  you  sit  down,  with  the  determina- 
tion that  you  will  keep  your  mind  on  your  lesson,  that  you  will  study 
for  all  you  are  worth,  and  that  you  will  complete  your  task  as  quickly 
as  possible. 

5.  Begin  studying  with  a  rush.  Do  not  waste  any  time  getting 
started. 

6.  Begin  your  studying  by  recalling  the  main  points  of  the 
previous  lesson  and  then  get  clearly  in  mind  the  assignment  which 
vou  are  to  studv. 


^These  general  directions,  as  well  as  those  for  particular  subjects,  are  reproduced, 
except  for  slight  editorial  changes,  in  substantially  the  same  form  in  which  they  were 
used  in  the  investigation.  No  attempt  was  made  to  revise  them  in  the  light  ot  the 
results  of  the  investigation. 

[42] 


7.  At  the  end  of  your  study  of  a  lesson,  summarize  briefly  what 
you  have  learned.  In  this  summary  the  most  important  points  should 
be  clearly  stated.    Usually  this  summary  should  be  written. 

8.  Watch  carefully  for  items  which  you  are  unable  to  understand 
and  check  them  for  the  purpose  of  asking  your  teacher  for  an  explana- 
tion. Also  make  a  point  of  asking  your  teacher  for  any  additional  in- 
formation which  would  be  helpful  to  you  with  your  lesson.  Plan  to 
ask  your  teacher  at  least  one  good  question  on  each  lesson. 

9.  Keep  studying  until  you  are  certain  you  have  your  lesson  or 
know  just  what  your  difficulty  is. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDY 
OF  HISTORY 

Introductory  statement.  Successful  study  of  history  is  dependent 
upon  one's  ability  to  read  silently.  Frequently,  progress  in  de- 
veloping a  good  technique  for  studying  this  subject  will  be  limited 
until  the  teacher  has  succeeded  in  training  the  student  to  be  a  more 
fluent  reader.  Therefore,  for  some  students  the  first  training  will  be 
in  silent  reading  rather  than  in  study  procedure. 

The  teacher  should  show  the  students  how  to  select  the  important 
points  of  each  paragraph.  If  students  are  unable  to  do  this  satis- 
factorily it  may  be  wise  to  have  them  prepare  written  lists  of  the  im- 
portant items.  The  teacher  may  even  require  students  to  read  a 
paragraph  silently  in  class  and  then  give  the  significant  points,  or  to 
tell  in  what  way  the  topic  stated  at  the  beginning  of  the  paragraph 
is  explained.  In  case  an  incorrect  answer  is  given  the  students  should 
be  directed  to  consult  their  books  and  seek  the  right  answer. 

The  teacher  may  show  how  he  himself  studies,  or  ask  some  of  the 
students  who  do  excellent  work  to  tell  how  they  study.  Students 
who  find  it  difficult  to  keep  their  minds  upon  their  lessons  may  be 
helped  frequently  if  they  will  read  aloud  for  a  time  when  they  notice 
that  their  attention  is  not  centered  on  the  assignment. 

Underlining  is  a  useful  device  in  the  study  of  history,  but  the 
teacher  should  carefully  instruct  the  students  concerning  its  use. 

1.  Before  beginning  the  reading  of  the  lesson  in  history,  be  cer- 
tain that  you  understand  the  assignment.  It  should  give  you  a 
definite  purpose  for  your  reading,  that  is,  you  should  understand 
what  information  you  are  to  find  and  what  use  you  are  to  make  of  it. 

2.  First,  read  over  the  entire  assignment  rapidly  in  order  to  get 
the  general  trend  of  thought  and  the  main  ideas.  Give  attention  to 
the  paragraph  headings  and  the  marginal  summaries. 

[43] 


3.  Next,  read  over  your  lesson  a  paragraph  at  a  time.  Read  it 
carefully.  Look  up  the  meanings  of  unfamiliar  words.  Locate  places 
mentioned  on  the  map.  Read  paragraphs  and  sections  to  which 
cross  references  are  made. 

4.  Underline  the  important  sentences.  However,  you  should  be 
certain  that  the  sentence  is  important  before  you  underline  it. 

5.  As  you  study,  keep  the  aim  of  your  assignment  constantly 
before  you. 

6.  Try  to  determine  the  reason  for  the  statements  which  the 
author  makes. 

7.  Study  each  paragraph  until  you  are  able  to  give  the  main 
points  without  looking  at  your  book.  Commit  to  memory  important 
names,  dates,  and  definitions. 

8.  When  you  have  finished  an  assignment,  review  it  in  your 
mind  and  summarize  it  by  recalling  the  most  important  points. 
If  your  lesson  consists  of  several  divisions  do  this  for  each  division. 

9.  Spend  at  least  as  much  time  in  thinking  about  your  lesson  as 
in  reading  about  it. 

10.  Formulate  questions  which,  in  answering,  will  require  an 
understanding  of  the  most  important  ideas  in  your  lesson. 

IL  Try  to  answer  the  following  questions: 

L  What  is  the  relation  of  today's  lesson  to  the  general  topic 
you  are  studying  and  what  does  it  contribute  to  this  topic.'' 

2.  What  is  the  relation  of  the  general  topic  to  the  school 
subject? 

12.  When  you  have  finished  studying  a  chapter  prepare  an  out- 
line of  it.  If  you  do  not  understand  how  to  begin  such  a  task,  ask 
your  teacher  to  help  you. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDY 
OF  ALGEBRA 

L  x'\s  a  preparatory  step,  get  the  assignment  clearly  in  mind, 
recall  the  teacher's  explanation  and  study  again  the  sample  exercises 
and  the  explanations  given  in  your  text-book. 

2.  Read  your  exercises  carefully.  Be  certain  with  each  exercise 
that  you  understand  what  is  given  and  what  is  to  be  done,  and  that 
you  keep  these  facts  clearly  in  mind  while  working.  Make  sure  that 
you  copy  the  exercise  correctly  on  your  paper. 

3.  Take  plenty  of  time  to  think.  Do  not  begin  work  until  you 
understand  exactly  what  is  given  and  what  is  to  be  done. 

[44] 


4.  If  you  do  not  know  how  to  begin,  consult  your  textbook  and 
try  to  recall  explanations  which  your  teacher  has  given. 

5.  An  exercise  is  frequently  made  up  of  a  series  of  steps — do  one 
step  at  a  time. 

6.  Compare  exercises  in  algebra  with  the  same  type  of  exercises 
in  arithmetic.    Frequently  this  will  give  you  a  suggestion. 

7.  Work  carefully.  It  is  easier  to  avoid  mistakes  than  to  find 
them  after  they  are  made. 

8.  Remember  that  every  symbol  in  algebra  has  a  very  definite 
meaning. 

9.  When  you  are  unable  to  work  an  exercise  do  not  give  up,  at 
least  try  to  find  out  just  what  your  difficulty  is. 

10.  When  it  is  possible  to  do  so,  be  sure  to  check  the  answers 
which  you  obtain. 

11.  Memorize  important  rules  and  formulas,  but  be  certain  that 
you  understand  them. 

12.  Use  rules  and  formulas  as  soon  as  possible  after  you  have 
learned  them  in  order  that  you  may  fix  them  in  your  mind. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF 
ENGLISH  LITERATURE-POETRY 

1.  Think  over  the  title  of  the  poem  you  are  to  study  and  try  to 
form  some  opinion  as  to  what  the  poem  will  be  about. 

2.  Read  the  entire  poem  through  rapidly  to  get  the  general  trend 
of  thought. 

3.  Next,  read  the  poem  more  carefully,  probably  a  stanza  at  a 
time  in  order  to  obtain  its  full  meaning.  Frequently  reading  aloud 
will  assist  in  understanding  the  poem  as  well  as  in  appreciating  it. 

4.  Look  up  and  read  the  notes  given  in  your  text. 

5.  Unless  you  are  certain  that  you  do  not  need  further  assistance 
in  understanding  the  meaning,  try  to  find  information  about  the 
names  and  historical  places  mentioned  in  the  poem. 

6.  Look  up  the  meaning  of  unfamiliar  words. 

7.  If  there  are  difficult  points,  make  a  note  of  them  so  that  you 
may  ask  your  teacher  about  them  in  class.  Try  to  ask  your  teacher 
one  good  question  each  day. 

8.  Write  out  a  sentence  which  will  express  the  central  thought 
or  theme  of  the  poem. 

9.  Pick  out  and  make  note  of  the  most  important  character- 
istics of  the  poem. 

[45] 


10.  Think  over  your  own  experiences  in  order  to  discover  possible 
illustrations  of  the  poem. 

11.  Decide  whether  you  agree  with  everything  the  poet  says. 

12.  At  the  end  of  your  study  summarize  your  lesson  by  recalling 
the  most  important  points  of  the  poem. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF 
ENGLISH  LITERATURE-PROSE 

1.  Think  over  the  title  of  your  assignment  and  decide  what  it 
will  be  about. 

2.  First  read  the  entire  lesson  through  and  get  the  general  trend 
and  the  main  ideas. 

3.  Next,  read  it  through  more  carefully,  trying  to  understand 
everything  the  author  says. 

4.  Look  up,  and  read  the  notes  given  in  your  book. 

5.  In  case  you  do  not  derive  a  satisfactory  meaning  from  the 
context,  look  up  the  meaning  of  the  words  which  you  do  not  know. 

6.  Look  up  information  in  regard  to  places  and  historical  names 
if  such  occur  in  your  lesson. 

7.  Pick  out  the  important  ideas  in  your  assignment.  Indicating 
them  by  an  underline  is  a  good  way  but  you  should  make  certain  that 
the  words  selected  express  the  important  idea  before  you  underline 
them. 

8.  Write  out  in  a  sentence  or  two  the  central  thought  of  your 
lesson. 

9.  Decide  whether  you  agree  with  the  statements  which  the 
author  makes. 

10.  At  the  end  of  your  study  summarize  the  lesson.  Be  sure  to 
include  in  this  summary  all  of  the  important  points. 

Note. — Supplementary  directions  for  the  study  of  language  and  composition  were 
prepared  also,  but  they  related  to  an  unusual  course  of  study  and  a  unique  plan  of 
instruction.   For  that  reason  they  are  not  reproduced  here. 


[46] 


CHAPTER  V 
HOW  BRIGHT  CHILDREN  STUDY 

Study  procedure  used  by  bright  children  an  additional  source 
of  data.  Additional  evidence  of  the  bearing  of  study  procedure  upon 
success  in  school  work  may  be  secured  by  inquiring  into  the  ways  in 
which  the  more  gifted  children  go  about  studying  their  lessons. 
Naturally  we  expect  to  find  that  those  students  who  have  a  notice- 
ably high  standing  employ  highly  efficient  methods  of  study,  but 
we  must  keep  in  mind  also  that  the  success  of  such  pupils  probably 
depends  in  part  upon  other  factors  including  their  own  capacity  to 
learn. 

Procedure  followed  in  interviewing  bright  students.  Several 
teachers  in  the  University  High  School  were  requested  to  select  the 
two  or  three  students  whom  they  considered  the  best  in  their  classes. 
The  investigator  then  arranged  for  an  interview  with  each  of  these 
students,  some  of  whom  were  informed  before  hand  that  they  were 
to  be  consulted  concerning  their  methods  of  preparing  their  assign- 
ments. The  interview  was  begun  by  inquiring  with  reference  to  a 
particular  subject,  "Tell  me  just  what  you  do  when  you  study  your 
lesson."  Unless  the  student  voluntarily  covered  the  points  in  his 
answer,  follow-up  questions  were  asked  such  as:  "At  what  time  do 
you  usually  study  your  lesson?  Do  you  study  it  at  home  or  at  school? 
In  case  you  study  at  home,  where  do  you  study?  Do  you  have  a  hard 
time  keeping  your  mind  on  your  lesson?  How  often  do  you  review? 
What  do  you  do  when  you  come  to  something  you  do  not  under- 
stand?" In  addition  a  few  questions  relating  to  the  particular  sub- 
ject were  asked.  For  example,  in  history  the  student  was  asked  if  he 
used  a  dictionary  in  the  preparation  of  his  lesson,  which  dates,  if  any, 
he  memorized,  what  use  he  made  of  the  maps  and  whether  he  was 
accustomed  to  make  an  outline. 

Accounts  of  five  of  the  interviews  are  reproduced  here  because 
of  the  significance  of  the  study  procedures  which  are  described. 
These  five  students,  with  one  exception,  came  from  homes  of  mem- 
bers of  the  faculty  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  and  doubtless  had 
surroundings  conducive  to  the  formation  of  good  study  habits. 
Their  home  influences  were  stimulating;  they  were,  as  the  intelligence 

[47] 


tests^  showed,  children  of  superior  mental  ability,  and  although  we 
should  expect  such  students  to  make  exceptionally  high  records  in  their 
school  work,  the  results  of  the  interviews  seem  to  show  conclusively 
that  their  success  was  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  they  used  efficient 
methods  in  studying  their  lessons. 

Second  year  history — ancient  history.  N.  W.  was  a  sophomore, 
almost  fourteen  years  of  age,  who  was  considered  undoubtedly  one 
of  the  brightest  students  in  the  school.  His  score  of  216  upon  the 
Otis  Group  Intelligence  Scale  placed  him  in  the  rank  of  superior 
adults.  He  began  school  at  the  age  of  five  years,  had  maintained  a 
high  standing  throughout  his  entire  career,  was  quiet,  conscientious, 
studious,  and  little  inclined  to  participate  in  outside  activities. 
Before  coming  to  the  interview  he  was  told  its  purpose,  and  made  an 
effort  to  get  in  mind  just  what  procedure  of  study  he  followed.  This 
he  was  able  to  give  in  a  very  clear  concise  manner. 

In  the  preparation  of  an  assignment  in  ancient  history,  he  reads 
the  entire  lesson  over  once  in  order  to  get  the  general  trend  of  thought. 
He  then  reads  it  carefully  a  second  time  to  get  the  meaning  in  greater 
detail.  The  next  step  is  reading  paragraph  and  sectional  headings 
and  thinking  over  the  material  they  represent  as  a  means  of  testing 
his  familiarity  with  this  material.  In  case  he  does  not  remember  the 
discussion  which  applies  to  any  heading  he  rereads  the  paragraph 
again  carefully.  Just  before  class  the  next  day  he  reviews  by  reading 
the  headings  and  going  over  in  his  mind  what  is  contained  in  each 
paragraph.  If  he  is  doubtful  about  any  of  the  content  he  studies  it 
again.  He  looks  up  words  which  are  totally  unfamiliar,  locates  on  the 
map  places  mentioned  in  the  text,  and  memorizes  important  dates 
although  very  few  dates  are  required  in  class.  He  is  accustomed  to 
criticize  the  author's  statements,  occasionally  notices  where  the 
author  has  contradicted  himself,  and  brings  up  such  a  point  in  class 
for  discussion.  Frequently  he  finds  it  necessary  to  review  in  order 
to  connect  up  the  present  lesson  with  what  has  gone  before.  He  does 
no  outlining  except  as  it  is  assigned. 

First  year  algebra.  J.  D.  was  in  the  freshman  class,  was  almost 
fourteen  years  old,  and  had,  according  to  his  score  of  186  on  the  Otis 
Group  Intelligence  Scale,  a  mental  age  of  approximately  twenty 
years.  He  was  tall,  well  built  physically,  alert,  generally  interested, 
and  considered  by  his  principal  "one  of  the  finest  all-round  boys  in 

^The  Otis  Group  Intelligence  Scale  had  been  given  to  all  these  students  at  the 
beginning  of  the  school  year. 

[48] 


the  school."  He  made  no  preparation  for  the  interview  as  had  N.  W., 
whose  study  procedure  was  discussed  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 
He  was,  however,  able  to  give  a  rather  full  account  of  his  method  of 
study  in  algebra. 

J.  D.  usually  prepares  his  assignment  during  the  three  o'clock 
period  but  in  case  the  lesson  is  so  long  that  he  is  unable  to  finish  it 
during  this  time  he  completes  it  at  home.  He  never  finds  his  mind 
wandering  in  algebra  and  never  feels  the  need  of  conscious  effort  to 
concentrate.  At  any  time  he  thinks  it  necessary  he  reviews  the  pre- 
vious lesson  but  this  does  not  occur  frequently.  In  case  the  teacher's 
explanation  of  new  problems  has  not  been  sufficient  to  make  them 
clear  he  studies  the  supplementary  explanation  and  the  sample  exer- 
cises in  the  textbook.  Even  though  he  has  understood  the  teacher's 
explanation  he  always  looks  over  the  explanatory  exercises  in  his 
book  to  see  if  there  is  anything  which  the  teacher  failed  to  mention. 
In  an  effort  to  understand  a  given  type  of  exercise  he  compares  it 
with  arithmetical  problems  of  the  same  type.  In  case  he  makes  an 
error  which  he  is  unable  to  locate  he  leaves  the  exercise  for  a  while 
and  then  works  it  again  on  a  new  sheet  of  paper.  He  does  not  com- 
mit to  memory  formulas  and  rules  word  for  word  but  remembers 
them  as  they  are  applied  to  some  sample  exercise.  He  reviews  at  the 
end  of  a  chapter  or  section  only  when  the  teacher  assigns  a  review  and 
in  that  case  only  when  he  feels  that  he  does  not  understand  the  ma- 
terial of  that  section. 

Third  year  English  literature— poetry.  A.  N.  was  almost 
twenty-three  years  old  and  had  returned  to  high  school  after  teaching 
several  years.  She  was  taking  six  subjects  in  order  to  graduate  in 
June,  1923,  was  working  very  hard,  and  was  hoping  to  be  able  to  con- 
tinue her  education.  Her  intelligence  test  showed  her  average  for 
her  age.  She  had  not  been  informed  previously  of  the  purpose  of  the 
interview  and  consequently  had  made  no  preparation  for  it.  She  gave 
in  a  clear  manner  some  details  of  her  method  of  study,  but  was  unable 
to  diagnose  her  procedure  sufficiently  to  give  an  approximately  com- 
plete statement.  As  the  first  step  in  the  preparation  of  a  new  assign- 
ment, A.  N.  reads  an  entire  poem  through  rather  rapidly  to  get  the 
main  ideas,  then  reads  it  a  second  time  more  slowly  in  order  to  note 
details.  She  studies  the  notes  given  in  the  book,  looks  up  words  of 
which  she  does  not  know  the  meaning,  and  occasionally  attempts 
to  analyze  sentences  as  an  aid  in  clearing  up  the  meaning  of  diffi- 
cult passages.    In  this  course,  the  life  of  the  author  is  not  studied 

[49] 


until  after  his  work  has  been  taken  up  in  class,  and  the  students  were 
requested  at  the  beginning  of  the  study  of  a  particular  poet  to  find 
out  from  his  writings  as  much  as  possible  about  his  life  and  personal- 
ity. A.  N.  is  accustomed  to  underline  passages  which  seem  to  give 
information  concerning  the  poet  or  to  indicate  important  character- 
istics of  the  poem.  Also  she  occasionally  jots  down  on  the  margin  of 
the  page  thoughts  concerning  the  poem.  Frequently  she  has  diffi- 
culty in  keeping  her  mind  on  the  work  but  this  may  be  due  to  the  fact 
that  she  studies  in  the  living  room  at  home  surrounded  by  her 
family. 

First  year  English  literature — prose.  M.  G.,  a  freshman  student, 
was  thirteen  years  old  with  a  mental  age  of  seventeen  years.  In  her 
school  work,  as  in  her  life  outside,  she  was  inclined  to  be  somewhat 
erratic,  devoting  herself  with  enthusiasm  to  anything  in  which  she 
was  for  the  time  interested.  Because  of  her  superior  mental  ability 
and  of  her  general  alertness  she  was  able  to  make  fairly  good  grades 
in  spite  of  a  careless  and  somewhat  indifferent  attitude  toward  study. 
In  English  literature,  however,  her  favorite  study,  she  was  accustomed 
to  make"  A's."  She  had  made  some  preparation  for  the  interview  and 
could  give  readily  the  information  concerning  the  method  by  which 
she  studied  her  assignments  in  English.  The  material  in  this  course 
was  taken  from  the  Atlantic  Classic  Series  containing  a  selection  of 
essays,  short  stories,  etc. 

M,  G.  described  the  first  step  in  her  procedure  in  much  the  same 
way  as  the  preceding  student,  a  hurried  reading  in  order  to  get  the 
general  trend  of  thought,  followed  by  a  more  careful  and  detailed 
analysis.  She  usually  reads  the  notes  given,  looks  up  words  with 
which  she  is  totally  unfamiliar  and  occasionally  "finds  certain  of  the 
authors*  statements  that  seem  absurd  and  asks  the  teacher  about 
them."  She  next  attempts  to  answer  the  questions  given  at  the 
end  of  the  selection,  and  if  unable  to  do  this,  she  rereads  portions  of 
the  text  vmtil  she  has  cleared  up  her  difficulties.  She  is  accustomed  to 
study  her  literature  at  school  during  the  eleven  o'clock  period,  the 
recitation  coming  at  one  o'clock,  and  sometimes  is  forced  to  make 
a  distinct  effort  in  order  to  concentrate  upon  her  work. 

Second  year  English — language  and  composition.  In  order  to 
understand  fully  the  statement  of  the  procedure  of  study  employed 
in  language  and  composition  it  is  necessary  to  know  something  of  the 
course  and  of  the  method  of  presentation.  The  instruction  was  in- 
dividualized  and  each   member  of  the  class  was  given   a  mimeo- 

[SO] 


graphed  outline  which  would  ordinarily  cover  the  work  of  two 
semesters,  that  of  the  second  semester  of  the  sophomore  and  the  first 
semester  of  the  senior  year.^  There  were  two  main  divisions  of  the 
outline,  the  first  dealing  with  the  grammatical  and  rhetorical  con- 
struction of  the  sentence,  the  second  with  the  construction  of  the 
narrative,  unity,  coherence,  etc.  As  each  student  completed  certain 
sections  or  problems  he  took  a  test  which,  if  satisfactory,  enabled  him 
to  pass  on  to  the  next  problem.  During  the  class  period,  the  teacher 
directed  the  individual  pupils,  discussed  general  principles,  answered 
any  questions  asked  by  the  students,  and  kept  a  general  oversight 
of  the  work  being  done. 

The  student,  A.  J.,  selected  for  the  interview  upon  this  subject, 
was  a  sophomore,  thirteen  and  a  half  years  of  age  with  the  intelligence 
of  a  superior  adult.  Her  score  on  the  Otis  Group  Intelligence  Scale 
was  213,  and  her  scores  on  the  Monroe  Standardized  Silent  Reading 
Test,  Form  B:  Comprehension  81,  Rate  151,  were  the  highest  made 
among  the  entire  student  body.  Before  entering  high  school,  her 
training  had  been  somewhat  different  from  that  of  the  other  students 
interviewed.  She  had  been  taught  by  her  parents  until  she  was  eight 
years  old,  at  which  time  she  entered  the  fourth  grade,  and  completed 
the  elementary  school  in  three  and  one-half  years.  In  her  home 
training,  concentration  and  rapid  work  had  been  emphasized  from 
the  time  she  began  reading  at  four  years  of  age.  If  she  seemed  tired, 
or  for  any  reason  was  unable  to  exhibit  her  usual  interest  in  her 
lessons,  she  was  not  allowed  to  loiter  over  them  but  was  sent  out  to 
play,  and  the  work  postponed.  Throughout  her  school  life  her  teach- 
ers have  commented  upon  her  ability  to  concentrate  and  to  think 
quickly  as  contributing  largely  to  her  success.  In  the  English  com- 
position course,  opportunity  was  given  her  to  use  such  ability  to 
advantage,  she  completed  the  work  of  both  semesters  in  one,  and  made 
a  grade  of  A  on  the  same  final  examination  which  the  seniors  had  taken 
with  an  average  of  B  and  C.^  Although  she  had  made  no  preparation 
for  the  interview  she  apparently  gave  a  rather  full  account  of  her 
method  of  study  in  this  course. 

In  preparing  a  new  assignment,  A.  J.  is  accustomed  to  consult 
several  reference  books  for  explanations  of  topics  and  sub-topics  in 
the  outline  but  in  case  she  cannot  find  satisfactory  material  she  asks 

^The  work  in  English  during  the  junior  year  was  devoted  entirely  to  literature. 

'It  is  of  interest  that  N.  W.,  the  first  student  whose  interview  is  reported  in  this 
chapter,  completed  the  same  amount  of  work  as  A.  J.  and  made  the  same  final  grade 
upon  the  course. 

[51] 


the  teacher  for  help.  After  completing  to  her  own  satisfaction  this 
portion  of  the  assignment,  she  studies  the  sample  sentences  in  the 
books  to  which  she  has  referred,  writes  out  and  corrects  a  few  original 
sentences  containing  the  errors  described,  etc.,  and  then  has  a  con- 
sultation with  the  teacher  regarding  her  work  upon  the  entire  section 
of  the  outline.  If,  in  the  teacher's  judgment,  she  has  completed  her 
study  of  the  problem  satisfactorily,  she  takes  the  test  upon  it  and 
passes  on  to  the  next  division.  She  makes  a  conscious  attempt  to 
study  without  wasting  time  and  says  that  she  has  no  difficulty  in 
concentrating.  In  case  a  previous  problem  is  connected  with  the  new 
one  she  reviews  the  first  before  beginning  her  study.  In  writing  a 
theme  she  selects  her  own  topic,  choosing  it  usually  from  a  list  which 
she  has  jotted  down  from  time  to  time.  She  rewrites  and  corrects 
the  theme  several  times,  reads  it  over  both  silently  and  aloud,  and 
then  lays  it  aside  until  the  next  morning  when  she  goes  over  it  again 
before  the  final  copying.  She  does  this  because  after  a  lapse  of  time 
she  is  frequently  able  to  discover  errors  and  imperfections  which  she 
has  failed  to  notice.  She  uses  the  dictionary  for  correcting  spelling 
and  for  finding  synonyms  and  new  words,  and,  unless  the  teacher  has 
requested  her  not  to  do  so,  she  consults  reference  books  regarding 
punctuation  and  other  doubtful  points. 


[52] 


CHAPTER  VI 

SUMMARY  AND  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  GIVING  TRAINING 

IN  STUDY  PROCEDURE 

Conditions  in  University  High  School  not  typical.  Relatively 
small  classes  and  a  high  quality  of  instruction  in  the  University  High 
School  tend  to  reduce  the  number  of  students  who  are  not  successful 
in  their  school  work.  Furthermore,  the  teachers  have  attempted  to 
give  some  training  in  good  methods  of  study.  As  such  conditions  are 
not  typical  of  high  schools  in  general,  the  results  of  this  investigation 
should  be  considered  as  only  roughly  indicative  of  the  influence  of 
study  procedure  upon  school  standing. 

Ineffective  study  procedure  a  cause  of  low  standing.  The 
students  of  the  experimental  group  were  found  to  follow,  in  the 
judgment  of  the  investigators,  inefficient  methods  of  study.  Other 
factors,  however,  such  as  lack  of  effort,  poor  physical  condition, 
inability  to  read  effectively,  and  in  certain  cases  below  normal 
mentality,  contributed  to  the  unsatisfactory  work  of  these  students. 
Thus,  the  cause  of  low  school  standing  was  found^to  be  complex,  and 
the  data  collected  in  this  investigation  do  not  lead  inevitably  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  lack  of  an  efficient  study  procedure  is  the  funda- 
mental cause  of  poor  school  work  in  the  case  of  a  large  percent  of 
high-school  students.  However,  the  writers  feel  justified  in  stating 
that  a  number  of  the  high-school  students  who  are  doing  unsatis- 
factory work  have  the  capacity  to  maintain  a  much  higher  standing, 
and  that  an  attempt  to  train  such  students  in  a  good  technique  of 
study  would  prove  successful  in  many  cases.  Furthermore,  the 
writers  believe  that  if  such  training  were  begun  in  the  elementary 
schools,  fewer  failures  would  be  found  among  high-school  students. 

Defects  in  study  procedure.  Although  this  investigation  was  not 
sufficiently  exhaustive  to  expose  all  deficiencies  in  study  procedure, 
those  defects  which  were  especially  prominent  probably  may  be 
considered  as  among  the  types  occurring  most  frequently.  These 
are  listed  as  follows: 

I.  Inability  to  read  typical  textbook  material  in  an  effective 
manner. 
II.  Study  conceived  largely  as  a  process  of  memorizing  the 
textbook. 

[S3] 


III.  Failure  to  organize  and  summarize  the  material  studied. 

IV.  Failure  to  review  at  appropriate  intervals. 
V.  Lack  of  a  regular  time  and  place  for  study. 

VI.  Failure  to  concentrate  upon  the  assignment. 

VII.  The  practice  of  quitting  the  lesson  before  the  best  prepar- 
ation of  which  the  student  feels  he  is  capable,  has  been  made. 

Results  of  remedial  training  in  reading  and  study  procedure. 
Retesting  in  silent  reading  at  the  end  of  the  period  of  training  showed 
that  some  students  had  made  very  notable  gains  in  reading  ability; 
the  increase  varying  from  one-half  a  year  to  six  years.  With  certain 
students,  the  training  in  study  procedure  resulted  in  an  improvement 
in  their  school  work,  but  with  others  there  was  no  direct  evidence  of 
any  success.  This  failure  to  improve  was  probably  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  training  period  was  short  and  in  some  cases  was  handicapped 
by  an  extreme  lack  of  ability  to  read.  It  is  believed  by  the  investi- 
gators that  if  training  in  study  procedure  could  be  carried  out  system- 
atically during  the  entire  school  year  it  would  prove  effective  in 
the  majority  of  cases. 

Training  in  study  procedure  systematically  planned.  In  re- 
porting this  investigation,  the  procedure  followed  in  giving  training 
in  the  technique  of  study  has  been  described  rather  fully  in  the  hope 
that  it  might  suggest  methods  to  teachers  desirous  of  giving  such 
training  to  their  students.  As  a  preliminary  step,  the  teacher  should 
endeavor  to  identify  the  particular  defects  in  the  study  procedure  of 
each  student,  although  it  may  not  be  necessary  to  follow  a  plan  as 
elaborate  as  that  described  on  page  10.  This  outline,  however,  is 
suggestive  of  items  of  information  that  may  be  collected.  At  least 
one  general  intelligence  test  should  be  given  and  probably  should  be 
supplemented  by  one  or  more  tests  of  ability  to  read  silently.  In 
some  cases  informal  tests  will  prove  very  helpful,  but  will  need  to  be 
adapted  to  the  particular  case  being  studied.  Valuable  information 
also  concerning  the  pupil's  standing  and  shortcomings  may  often  be 
secured  from  consultations  with  his  different  teachers.  In  order  to  be 
effective,  training  in  study  procedure  should  be  based  upon  an  un- 
derstanding of  the  individual  needs  of  the  pupils  concerned,  should  be 
designed  for  specific  purposes,  and  should  be  planned  with  care. 
Furthermore,  such  training  should  never  be  treated  as  incidental 
but  should  be  made  a  definite  order  of  business. 

Administrative  plan  to  be  employed  in  training  in  study  proced- 
ure.  One  of  the  most  important  factors  to  be  considered,  in  introduc- 

[54] 


ing  Into  a  school  system  a  method  of  teaching  pupils  how  to  study, 
is  the  administrative  plan  which  should  be  employed.  In  an  endeavor 
to  supply  a  solution  for  this  particular  administrative  problem, 
various  plans  of  supervised  study,  so-called,  have  been  put  into 
practice.  Although  supervised  study  varies  in  certain  details  in  differ- 
ent school  systems,  fundamentally  it  presupposes  study  by  a  group 
of  students  under  the  guidance  of  a  teacher.  Usually  each  teacher 
directs  the  study  in  his  own  subject.  The  query  has  been  raised  as  to 
whether  it  would  not  be  more  effective  to  have  a  specialist  who  would 
devote  all  his  time  to  the  direction  of  study.  Other  questions  con- 
cerning the  proper  grouping  of  the  students,  who  are  to  receive  the 
training  in  study  procedure,  have  arisen.  In  the  present  investigation, 
a  specialist,  who  had  made  an  extensive  study  of  methods  of  learning 
and  who  had  been  trained  in  the  giving  of  tests  and  in  individual 
diagnosis,  attempted  within  a  limited  period  to  give  training  in 
effective  study  procedure  in  certain  school  subjects  to  a  small  group 
of  poor  students.  A  brief  discussion  of  the  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages of  this  plan,  as  suggested  by  the  investigation,  may  indicate 
appropriate  answers  to  the  preceding  questions. 

Who  should  give  training  in  methods  of  study?  The  experience 
of  the  investigator  demonstrated  the  necessity  for  perfect  familiarity 
with  the  work  of  the  course  and  with  individual  needs  and  capabili- 
ties. In  order  to  give  effective  training  in  study  procedure  in  any 
school  subject,  the  director  should  be  familiar  with  the  nature  of  the 
subject-matter,  the  method  of  its  presentation,  and  the  objectives  of 
the  course.  In  addition,  he  should  follow  the  assignments  day  by  day 
and  know  the  material  which  is  covered.  Much  of  the  work,  neces- 
sarily in  such  a  case,  would  duplicate  that  of  the  classroom  teacher. 
In  the  opinion  of  the  investigator,  the  time  and  effort  required  for  a 
special  teacher  to  familiarize  himself  with  the  work  of  the  varying 
classes  will  be  too  great,  from  an  administrative  point  of  view,  to 
permit  of  adequate  returns. 

Certain  persons,  who  have  advanced  the  opinion  that  special 
teachers  should  be  employed  to  direct  the  study  of  pupils,  give  as 
their  reason  the  argument  that  a  proper  performance  of  this  function 
requires  someone  who  has  had  more  specialized  training  than  the 
classroom  teacher  usually  possesses.  It  is  true  that  the  classroom 
teacher  is  often  not  sufficiently  trained  in  the  specific  problems  con- 
nected with  teaching  pupils  how  to  study,  but  it  is  believed  that  this 
lack  of  training  may  be  obviated  to  a  considerable  extent  by  detailed 

CSS] 


directions  for  carrying  on  types  of  training  which  have  proved  effec- 
tive in  developing  successful  study  procedures.  It  is  necessary  that 
the  training  be  such  as  may  be  given  in  connection  with  the  classroom 
instruction  and  that  the  description  be  easily  understood  even  by 
persons  somewhat  unfamiliar  with  the  problems  of  teaching  how  to 
study.  Under  these  conditions,  therefore,  it  is  believed  that  the  class- 
room teacher,  as  the  result  of  his  familiarity  with  the  work  of  the 
course  and  the  nature  of  the  needs  and  capabilities  of  the  pupils,  will 
prove  more  successful  in  this  task  from  the  point  of  view  both  of  the 
administration  and  of  the  effectiveness  of  the  results  secured. 

Individual  or  group  instruction.  Individual  instruction,  the 
method  used  in  the  present  investigation,  doubtless  has  advantages 
for  certain  types  of  pupils  which  group  instruction  does  not  possess. 
It  is  evident  that  individual  instruction,  however,  of  large  numbers 
is  impractical  from  an  administrative  point  of  view.  Probably,  it  will 
be  found  convenient  in  most  cases  to  have  the  class  as  a  unit  of  in- 
struction, and  provided  the  class  is  not  too  large,  it  is  believed  that 
this  will  prove  satisfactory  for  the  greater  number  of  students. 
Pupils  who  have  difficulty  in  doing  independent  work  may  be  formed 
into  a  small  group  for  instruction,  or  perhaps  in  certain  cases  may  be 
given  some  individual  training  in  methods  of  study. 


[56] 


CHAPTER  VII 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Alberty,  H.   B.    "Directing  the  study  of  pupils — a  hand-book  for 

teachers  and  school  administrators."    Cleveland,  Ohio:     Cuya- 

hoago  County  Board  of  Education,  1922.   39  p. 

The  author  attempts  to  present  in  a  brief  manner  a  technique  for  teaching 
the  proper  methods  and  habits  of  study.  His  suggestions,  which  are  taken  almost 
verbatim  from  recent  authors,  represent  a  summary  of  the  most  important  specific 
directions  and  devices  for  training  in  methods  of  study.  Little  space  is  devoted  to 
a  discussion  of  the  principles  underlying  study  procedure  other  than  that  absolutely 
necessary  to  explain  items  of  technique  presented.  As  an  illustration  of  the  proper 
use  of  the  technique  to  be  employed,  lesson  plans  in  history  and  literature  are  given. 
A  plan  for  conducting  teachers'  meetings  or  directing  the  study  of  pupils  is  also 
set  forth. 

Alderman,  Grover  H.  "The  lecture  method  vs.  the  question-and- 
answer  method,"  The  School  Review,  30:205-09,  March,  1922. 

Results  of  the  experiment  reported  in  the  present  study  indicate  that  pupils 
in  Grades  VII,  VIII,  and  IX  remember  more  factual  material  when  taught  by  the 
question  and  answer  method  and  that  in  Grades  X,  XI,  and  XII  more  material  is 
remembered  when  the  lecture  method  is  used. 

Andreus,  Leonard  Sterling,  Essential  Principles  of  Teaching  Read- 
ing and  Literature.  Philadelphia:  J.  B.  Lippincott  and  Com- 
pany, 1922,  p.  138-99. 

The  author  of  this  volume  emphasizes  the  necessity  for  definitely  separating 
the  teaching  of  reading  from  the  teaching  of  literature.  He  states  that  a  prerequisite 
of  increasing  the  reading  efficiency  of  a  class  is  a  reliable  determinant  of  the  level 
of  the  reading  ability  of  individual  children  and  he  discourages  brief  measures 
which  may  be  used  in  securing  such  a  determinant.  He  also  presents  a  variety  of 
methods  for  remedying  defects  in  reading. 

Barr,  a.  S.    "An  analysis  of  the  larger  mental  processes  involved  in 

the  study  of  elementary  school  history,"  The  Educator  Journal, 

21:263-68,  January,  1921. 

The  mental  processes  involved  in  the  study  of  elementary  school  history  are 
disintegrated  into  their  most  important  elements,  but  no  attempt  to  secure  a  basis 
by  experimentation  for  such  an  analysis  is  reported.  The  following  are  given  as  the 
most  important  mental  processes  involved  in  the  study  of  history:  ability  to  read 
the  material  at  hand;  ability  to  comprehend  historical  material;  placing  of  content 
into  technical  historical  terms;  selection  of  facts  which  are  of  sufficient  importance 
to  be  retained;  ability  to  understand  time  relations  or  the  placing  of  events  in  time; 
and  the  placing  of  facts  in  their  causal  relationships. 

[57] 


Chapman,  J.  C.  and  Feder,  R.  B.    "The  effect  of  external  incentives 

on  improvement,"  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  8:469-74, 

October,  1917. 

A  contrast  of  performance  is  made  between  two  fifth-grade  classes,  similar  in 
all  respects  except  that  one  group  is  stimulated  by  external  incentives  and  the 
other  is  not.  The  results  secured  show  a  higher  grade  performance  in  the  group 
motivated  by  rewards. 

CoLGRovE,  Chaun'cey  P.  The  Teacher  and  the  School.   New  York: 

Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1911,  p.  290-317.  The  Pupil's  Study  of 

the  Lesson. 

The  aims  of  the  "study  lesson"  are  given  as  follows:  (1)  to  acquire  power  to 
master  books  independently;  (2)  to  acquire  power  of  systematic  thinking;  (3)  to 
form  the  habit  of  self-controlled  work;  and  (4)  to  develop  a  sense  of  personal 
responsibility.  An  attempt  is  made  to  define  the  nature  of  study.  Certain  condi- 
tions which  may  hinder  study  are  enumerated  as:  (1)  the  child's  previous  mode 
of  learning;  (2)  a  sudden  change  from  oral  to  textbook  study;  (3)  the  fact  that 
textbooks  in  themselves  are  no  stimulus  to  effort;  (4)  physical  conditions;  and 
(5)  outside  interests.  A  method  of  lesson  study  is  outlined,  and  the  means  whereby 
teachers  may  help  pupils  to  study  are  suggested. 

CoLviN,  S.  S.  "Fundamental  elements  in  learning  and  teaching." 
Proceedings  of  the  First  Annual  Educational  Conference  Held 
April  7-8,  1921.  The  Ohio  State  University  Bulletin.  Colum- 
bus:   Ohio  State  University,  1921,  p.  12-19. 

The  author  states  the  following  principles  which  he  believes  must  be  consid- 
ered at  every  level  of  learning  processes: 

1.  The  law  of  simple  associative  connections. 

2.  The  law  of  the  conditioned  reflex  or  associative  shifting. 

3.  The  law  of  multiform  activity,  or  trial  and  error. 

4.  The  law  of  directed  learning,  restriction  of  the  field  of  trial  and  error. 

He  explains  these  laws  and  gives  illustrations  and  examples  of  their  proper 
and  improper  usage  in  classroom  procedure.  In  discussing  the  fourth  law  he  gives 
the  following  methods  for  securing  a  restriction  of  the  field  of  trial  and  error: 
(1)  rewards  and  punishment;  (2)  control  of  the  environment;  (3)  furnishing  the 
learner  with  a  copy;  and  (4)  the  development  of  free  ideas,  concepts  of  method, 
and  notions  of  procedure. 

CoLviN,  S.  S.  An  Introduction  to  High  School  Teaching.  New  York: 
The  Macmillan  Company,  1921,  p.  360-81. 

Two  reasons  given  in  this  chapter  for  the  desirability  of  supervised  study  are: 
"The  learner  is  often  given  unwise  aid  by  parents  or  friends,"  and  "when  a  pupil 
is  not  directed  in  his  work  he  often  acquires  blundering  and  wasteful  methods  of 
study."  In  the  enumeration  of  purposes  to  which  the  supervised  study  period  may 
be  devoted,  emphasis  is  placed  upon  the  fact  that  "it  may  be  used  to  habituate  the 
learner  in  the  technique  of  study."  In  the  discussion  which  follows  of  "fundamental 
principles  to  be  emphasized  in  the  technique  of  learning"  the  conditions  conducive 
to  effective  study  are  explained.  Also  suggestions  as  to  methods  of  study  of  certain 
types  of  material  are  given.  The  author  presents  the  objections  that  have  been 
advanced  against  the  employment  of  supervised  study  in  the  elementary  and  sec- 

[58] 


ondary  schools,  and  makes  an  attempt  to  answer  the  most  important  of  these 
objections  by  setting  forth  the  chief  administrative  plans  of  supervised  study  that 
have  found  their  way  into  various  school  systems. 

Cowan,  Edwina  Abbott.  "An  experiment  on  the  influence  of  train- 
ing on  memory."  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  7:31-38, 
January,  1916. 

The  results  of  an  experimental  study  with  ten  high-school  girls,  aged  eleven 
to  thirteen,  indicate  the  possibility  of  forming  by  direct  means  a  habit  which  may 
be  general  in  its  effect. 

Davis,  S.  E.    The  Work  of  the  Teachers.    New  York:    The  IMac- 

millan  Company,  1918,  p.  222-54. 

The  aim  of  this  chapter  is  to  give  teachers  a  certain  amount  of  preparation 
for  directing  pupils'  study.  The  conditions  essential  to  effective  study,  including 
motivation,  concentration,  recognition  of  the  nature  of  the  lesson  being  studied,  and 
the  proper  use  of  memorization,  are  presented.  Considerable  space  is  devoted  to  a 
presentation  of  suggestions  for  making  the  study  period  effective.  These  suggestions 
largely  take  the  form  of  basic  principles  rather  than  actual  classroom  devices  to  be 
applied.  Specific  causes  of  waste  in  study  such  as  inability  of  pupils  to  read,  and 
studying  without  a  recognized  plan  are  given.  The  methods  for  securing  an  effective 
use  of  textbooks  in  the  study  period  are  also  set  forth. 

Dearborn,  George  Van  Ness.  How  to  Learn  Easily.  Boston:  Lit- 
tle, Brown  and  Company,  1918.   227  p. 

The  author  intends  that  this  volume  represent  a  hand-book  of  practical  hints 
on  economical  and  productive  methods  of  study.  The  first  chapter  is  devoted  to 
measures  of  economy  in  the  general  study  process  and  enumerates,  explains,  and 
illustrates  the  factors  of  economy.  In  Chapter  II,  the  best  methods  to  be  employed 
in  observation  and  in  the  taking  of  notes  are  presented.  The  next  chapter  entitled, 
"Educative  Imagination,"  sets  forth  the  means  for  insuring  a  more  advantageous 
use  of  information  which  has  been  secured  through  observation  and  note-taking, 
and  discusses  the  place  of  memorization  or  reproductive  imagination,  and  of  con- 
structive imagination  or  the  power  of  foresight  in  the  learning  process.  In  the  last 
chapter  measures  leading  to  efficient  performance  on  examinations   are   presented. 

Earhart,  Lida  B.   Teaching  Children  to  Study.    Boston:    Houghton 

Mifflin  Company,  1909.    182  p. 

This  book  represents  one  of  the  earliest  comprehensive  treatments  of  the 
problem  of  teaching  children  to  study.  It  is  based  to  a  considerable  extent  on 
experimental  work  and  many  conclusions  which  it  presents  are  drawn  from  the 
classroom  work  of  teachers  and  pupils.  The  author  first  describes  in  a  clear,  logical 
fashion  the  process  of  logical  study,  both  inductive  and  deductive.  She  analyzes 
the  study  process  into  the  following  factors:  (1)  recognition  of  the  problem; 
(2)  gathering  of  data  relating  to  the  problem;  (3)  organization  of  data  into  groups 
of  related  ideas;  (4)  judging  the  soundness  of  statements  or  significant  facts  bearing 
upon  the  problem;  (5)  verification  of  conclusions;  and  (6)  fixing  of  knowledge  or 
memorization.  The  author  next  takes  up  the  form  which  these  two  processes  of 
logical  study  assume  under  the  limitations  of  schoolroom  procedure  and  explains  the 
form  which  each  factor  in  the  process  of  study  takes  in  textbook  study.  She  con- 
cludes as  a  result  of  certain  tests  that  children  do  possess  the  ability  to  study 
logically,  but  that  they  are  not  taught  at  present  how  to  do  so.   In  the  final  chapter 

[59] 


she  presents  excellent  suggestions  for  training  children  to  study.  These  suggestions 
in  many  cases  are  not  specific  statements  of  methods  to  be  employed  but  a  careful 
explanation  of  principles  which  point  the  way  to  the  devising  of  methods  for  each 
teacher's  use. 

Earhart,  Lida  B.    Types  of  Teaching.    Boston:    Houghton  Mifflin 

Company,  1915,  p.  192-218. 

A  brief  explanation  of  the  nature  of  study  is  given,  and  the  following  sugges- 
tions for  training  pupils  for  independent  study  are  presented:  (a)  to  find  the  aim 
or  problem;  (b)  to  judge  of  hypotheses:  (c)  to  collect  and  evaluate  data  effectively; 
(d)  to  organize  material;  (e)  to  defer  conclusions  and  form  independent  judgments; 
(f)  to  test  conclusions,  and  (g)  to  understand  material  memorized.  Devices  for 
testing  the  advancement  of  pupils  in  ability  to  study  effectively,  and  the  quality  of 
the  teacher's  instruction  in  securing  effective  study  procedure  are  suggested. 

Edwards,  A.  S.  The  Fundamental  Principles  of  Learning  and  Study. 

Baltimore:    Warwick  and  York,  1920.   239  p. 

The  aim  of  this  volume  is  stated  as  follows:  To  show  how  results  of  general 
psychology,  experimental  psychology  and  allied  sciences  can  be  put  into  use  by 
the  teacher  and  student  in  problems  of  learning  and  study.  The  importance  of  the 
"Habit  Theory"  to  educational  practice  and  thought  is  emphasized,  and  methods 
of  habit  formation  are  presented.  Additional  principles  underlying  study  procedure 
are  discussed  also  in  considerable  detail.  One  chapter  is  devoted  to  specific  sugges- 
tions for  studymg  and  teaching  how  to  study,  expressed  for  the  most  part  in  the  form 
of  rules.  With  the  exception  of  this  chapter  the  volume  differs  only  in  organization 
and  emphasis  from  a  number  of  others  on  the  same  subject. 

Finch,  Charles  E.    "Junior  high-school  study  tests."    The  School 

Review,  28:220-26,  March,  1920. 

"This  article  attempts  to  give  some  idea  of  the  reason  for  giving  the  tests, 
the  particular  object  of  each  test,  the  test  itself,  and  finally  some  conclusions  which 
have  resulted  from  a  study  of  the  tests,  especially  the  problem  of  using  study 
periods  in  schools  most  effectively."  Remedial  measures  for  increasing  effective 
silent  reading  study  which  were  used  by  teachers  after  an  examination  of  the  results 
of  the  four  study  tests,  are  explained  at  the  end  of  the  article. 

Freeland,  George  E.  "A  year's  study  of  the  daily  learning  of  six 
children."  The  Pedagogical  Seminary,  28:97-115,  June,  1921. 
In  this  report  one  child  possessing  normal  intelligence  was  chosen  from  each 
of  the  first  six  grades.  The  children  practiced  the  touch  system  in  typewriting  for 
a  period  of  ten  minutes  every  school  day  throughout  the  year.  A  record  of  their 
performance  was  kept,  the  study  of  which  indicated  that  vacations  have  a  varied 
influence  on  the  learning  process.  During  the  earlier  stages  of  the  practice,  before  the 
function  was  well  mastered,  vacations  tended  to  cause  a  decrease  in  the  quality  of 
the  work  but  later  seemed  to  have  very  little  influence  "on  the  nature  of  perform- 
ances." It  was  found  also  that  each  child  reached  a  plateau  and  remained  there, 
and  that  special  effort  was  necessary  before  this  lack  of  progress  could  be  overcome. 

Freeman,  F.  W.    How  Children  Learn.    Boston:    Houghton  Mifflin 

Company,  1917.   322  p. 

In  the  present  volume  the  author  takes  up  the  growth  of  the  child's  mind, 
and  shows  how  good  instruction  in  any  subject  and  in  all  parts  of  the  school  system 
must   be  founded  on   certain   general   applications   of  psychology  to  the  responses 

[60] 


which  are  both  natural  and  acquired  with  children  as  these  relate  to  their  play, 
imitation  of  others,  self-assertion,  social  attitudes,  skills,  perceptions,  association, 
memorizing  and  the  thinking  process.  He  formulates  the  principles  of  mental  growth 
in  children,  and  devotes  a  chapter  to  a  discussion  of  the  transfer  of  training,  and 
to  the  presentation  of  the  principles  of  mental  hygiene  and  mental  economy. 

Gray,  William  Scott.  "Remedial  cases  in  reading:  their  diagnosis 
and  treatment,"  Supplementary  Education  Monographs,  No.  22. 
Chicago:    University  of  Chicago,  1922.   208  p. 

The  present  monograph  represents  a  careful  study  of  the  reading  deficiencies 
of  a  considerable  number  of  individual  cases  together  with  a  discussion  of  the 
method  of  remedial  training  employed.  Fourteen  influential  causes  of  failure  in 
reading  were  discovered  and  are  described  briefly;  as,  in  terms  of,  ''their  inferior 
learning  capacity,  congenital  word  blindness,  poor  word  memory,  defective  vision, 
narrow  span  of  recognition,  regressive  eye  movements,  inadequate  training  in 
phonetics,  inadequate  attention  to  content,  inadequate  speaking  vocabulary,  a  small 
meaning  vocabulary,  special  defects,  lack  of  interest,  guessing,  and  timidity."  The 
author  states  that  other  less  important  causes  of  failure  were  discovered  in  addition 
to  the  ones  mentioned  in  the  preceding  sentence.  In  Chapter  III,  a  description  of 
the  methods  employed  in  individual  cases,  consisting  of  both  a  statement  of  a 
method  of  diagnosis  containing  both  informal  and  formal  tests  of  reading,  and  a 
presentation  of  the  information  blank  for  securing  the  history  of  each  case,  as  well 
as  some  of  the  more  commonly  used  measures  for  remedial  training  is  presented. 
The  remainder  of  the  volume  is  devoted  to  a  description  of  the  individual  cases. 
Each  case  is  discussed  with  regard  to  the  preliminary  diagnosis  of  reading  deficien- 
cies, the  remedial  instruction  employed  and  the  results  of  the  instruction. 

Hall-Quest,  A.  L.   Supervised  Study.   New  York:    The  Macmillan 

Company,  1917.  433  p. 

The  book  opens  with  an  enumeration  of  the  social  and  educational  conditions 
that  have  stimulated  educators  to  revise  methods  of  class  management  and  that 
have  led  to  the  necessity  for  supervised  study.  The  author  next  discusses  the  mean- 
ing of  supervised  study,  its  limitations  of  function,  and  the  misconceptions  con- 
cerning its  nature.  He  defines  supervised  study  as  "that  plan  of  school  procedure 
whereby  each  pupil  is  so  adequately  instructed  and  directed  in  the  methods  of 
studying  and  thinking  that  his  daily  preparation  will  progress  under  conditions 
most  favorable  to  a  hygienic,  economical,  and  self-reliant  career  of  intellectual 
endeavor."  Considerable  emphasis  Is  placed  upon  the  discussion  of  ''proper  condi- 
tions of  and  hindrances  to  study."  The  environmental,  physical,  and  psychological 
conditions  which  promote  or  hinder  study  are  presented  and  methods  for  Insuring 
conditions  conducive  to  effective  study  are  given.  The  author  next  describes  in 
some  detail  the  administration  of  supervised  study.  An  important  part  of  this 
description  is  the  explanation  of  the  chief  administrative  plans  which  have  been 
employed.  Two  chapters  are  devoted  to  a  presentation  of  methods  of  directing 
students  in  an  effective  study  procedure.  The  methods  of  studying  described  in 
these  chapters  have  as  an  objective  the  development  In  each  student  of  "skill  In  the 
handling  of  textbooks,  summaries,  underscoring,  outlining  notebooks,  reports,  sup- 
plementary reading,  memorizing,  and  thinking  with  the  constant  checking  of  progress 
by  careful  application."  These  are  the  tools  which  he  must  use.  If  he  becomes 
skillful  "he  will  be  able  to  undertake  new  tasks  alone  and  also  to  evolve  methods 
of  work  which  for  him  are  peculiarly  successful."  In  Part  II  of  this  volume  methods 
of  supervising  the  study  of  English,  history,  civics,  mathematics,  sciences,  languages, 

[61] 


and  of  the  fine  and  practical  arts  are  discussed  in  some  detail.  A  summary  of  the 
attempts  which  have  been  made  to  measure  the  results  of  supervised  study  is  given 
in  the  final  chapter. 

Hinsdale,  B.  A.    The  Art  of  Study.    New  York:    The  American 

Book  Company,  1900.   266  p. 

One  of  the  earlier  attempts  to  explain  the  nature  of  study,  the  processes 
involved,  and  the  principles  underlying  study  is  represented  by  this  work.  Especial 
attention  is  paid  to  a  discussion  of  the  relation  existing  between  learning  and 
teaching  and  to  a  description  of  mental  processes  such  as  attention  and  interest. 
Methods  of  learning  are  discussed  in  terms  of  the  psychological  processes  involved, 
and  emphasis  is  placed  upon  the  importance  of  more  classroom  activity  on  the  part 
of  the  students. 

Johnston,  Charles  H.   and  Others.    The  Modern  High   School. 

New  York:   Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1914.  p.  265-94, 

The  chapter  on  the  Direction  of  Study  was  written  by  A.  L.  Hall-Quest.  He 
attempts  first  to  define  the  meaning  of  study  and  gives  the  definitions  which  had 
been  offered  by  several  investigators  in  this  field.  Certain  elements  which  are  present 
in  any  study  process  are  enumerated.  In  discussing  factors  in  the  technique  of 
study  he  emphasizes  the  importance  of  directed  study  and  describes  important 
administrative  plans  for  supervised  study  which  have  been  employed  in  different 
school  systems.  An  important  factor  in  the  technique  of  study  is  the  student's 
ability  to  use  a  textbook,  and  the  author  explains  in  a  general  way  methods  by 
which  this  may  be  accomplished.  Under  the  head  "conditions  of  effective  studying" 
the  relation  of  the  surroundings  and  the  physical  condition  of  students  to  effective 
study  is  discussed. 

KiLPATRicK,  William  H.   "Mind-set  and  learning,"  General  Science 
Quarterly,  6:433-41,  March,  1922. 

Mind-set  is  explained  as  "mind-set-to-accomplish-a-purpose."  It  tends  to  fur- 
ther activities  favorable  to  the  purpose  and  to  inhibit  activities  which  are  unfavora- 
ble to  the  purpose. 

McMuRRY,  F.  M.   How  to  Study  and  Teaching  How  to  Study.   Bos- 
ton:   Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1909.   324  p. 

The  author  first  discusses  the  need  for  teaching  students  how  to  study  and 
the  seriousness  of  the  present  failure  to  accomplish  this.  He  attempts  to  explain 
the  nature  of  study  and  analyzes  it  into  the  following  factors:  (I)  provision  for 
specific  purposes  of  study;  (2)  the  supplementing  of  thought;  (3)  the  organization 
of  ideas;  (4)  judging  of  the  soundness  and  worth  of  statements  of  facts;  (5)  mem- 
orization; (6)  putting  ideas  into  practice  in  actual  activities  of  life;  (7)  provision 
for  tentative  rather  than  a  fixed  attitude  toward  knowledge;  and  (8)  provision  for 
individuality  in  knowledge.  He  devotes  a  chapter  to  the  explanation  and  illustration 
of  each  of  these  factors  and  to  the  discussion  of  their  relation  to  schoolroom  pro- 
cedure. The  latter  is  expressed  in  a  general  fashion  and  contains  few  classroom 
devices  to  be  used  in  directing  the  study  of  children. 
Meyers,  G.   C.    "Learning  against  time,"  Journal  of   Educational 

Psychology,  6:115-16,  February,  1915. 

In  an  experiment  pertaining  to  "the  effect  on  efficiency  of  learning  against 
time,"  two  groups  were  requested  to  learn  a  list  of  words.  The  first  group,  which 
consisted  of  thirteen  subjects,  was  given  all  of  the  time  necessary,  and  averaged 

[62] 


fourteen  minutes  and  forty-seven  seconds;  the  second  group  of  twenty-four  subjects, 
was  limited  to  nine  minutes.  Among  other  results  favorable  to  learning  against  time 
it  was  found  that  almost  one-half  of  the  second  rrrji-p  made  a  perfect  report  in  the 
same  amount  of  time  in  which  only  one  of  the  l\r.sr  group  made  a  perfect  report. 

Miller,  Harry  Lloyd.   Directing  Study.  New  York:    Charles  Scrib- 

ner's  Sons,  1922.   377  p. 

The  first  chapter  of  this  book  is  devoted  to  a  presentation  of  various  illustra- 
tive procedures  for  directing  "study  toward  mastery  through  creative  thinking." 
These  are  expressed  in  terms  of  the  tj^pes  of  procedures  which  may  be  used  rather 
than  of  specific  methods  and  devices  to  be  employed.  They  are  intended  to  prove 
suggestive  and  to  provide  a  theory  and  plan  of  organization  of  classroom  work  in 
which  Students  may  be  directed  in  the  most  effective  procedure  of  study.  Individual 
differences  in  children  are  recognized  and  methods  of  dealing  with  these  differences 
in  order  to  secure  higher  types  of  study  activity  are  presented.  He  proposes  as  "a 
guiding  idea  to  all  teachers,  that  we  give  boys  and  girls  things  to  do,  in  the  doing 
of  which  they  will  find  out  what  we  would  like  to  hav-e  them  know."  This  volume 
is  especially  valuable  in  that  it  recognizes  that  study  is  a  diagnostic  process  and 
must  achieve  its  results  through  the  highest  type  of  creative  thinking. 

Mitchell,  David.  "Variability  in  memory  span,"  Journal  of  Educa- 
tional Psychology,  10:445-57,  November,  1919. 

In  this  study  an  experiment  with  fifth  and  seventh-grade  children  on  the 
"variability  in  memory  span"  is  reported.  The  results  indicate  that  the  memory 
span  of  children  is  not  a  static  quantity.  The  position  of  the  individual  child  in 
the  rank  order  of  group  changes  materially  from  day  to  day.  However,  in  consid- 
ering the  average  performance  of  a  group  this  variability  need  not  be  taken  into 
consideration. 

Murphy,  Herbert  Hayes.  "Distribution  of  practice  periods  in  learn- 
ing," Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  7:150-62,  March,  1916. 

An  experiment  designed  to  measure  the  relative  merits  of  daily  and  of  alter- 
nate day's  practice  in  muscular  activities  with  normal  school  junior  and  senior  girls 
is  described.  Two  types  of  muscular  activities  are  included,  javelin  throwing  and 
left-hand  throwing.  It  was  discovered  that  practice  by  alternate  days  caused  a 
more  rapid  increase  in  ability  than  daily  practice.  The  author  believes  that  these 
results  would  apply  to  school  work  and  concludes  that  recitation  three  times  rather 
than  five  times  a  week  would  result  in  an  equal  amount  of  progress. 

Parker,  S.  C.  "Problem  solving  and  practice  in  thinking,"  Elemen- 
tary School  Journal,  21:16-25,98-111;  September,  October,  1920. 

These  articles  are  designed  to  acquaint  teachers  with  the  proper  technique  of 
problem  solving  and  to  make  them  aware  of  the  elements  of  skill  in  effective  think- 
ing. The  discussion  is  divided  into  four  sections:  I.  Problems  of  everj-day  life; 
II.  Actual  lessons  illustrating  problem-solving  in  school;  III.  How  skilled  problem- 
solvers  think;  IV.  Rules  for  training  pupils  in  effective  problem  solving. 

Poffenberger,  a.  T.  "The  influence  of  improvement  in  one  simple 
mental  process  upon  other  related  processes,"  Journal  of  Educa- 
tional Psychology,  6:459-74,  October,  1915. 

An  intensive  study  was  made  of  a  small  number  of  subjects  to  discover  the 
influence  of  improvement  in  one  simple  mental  process  upon  other  relative  processes. 
The  following  conclusions  were  reached: 

[63] 


1.  Where   there  were  no  identical  bonds   between   the   stimulus   and   the   re- 
sponse in  the  two  processes  there  is  neither  transfer  nor  interference. 

2.  Transfer  occurs  where  identical  elements  exist  in  the  two  processes. 

3.  If  practice  in  one  process  necessitates  the  breaking  of  bonds  which  have 
been  formed  previously,  interference  occurs. 

Pyle,  W.  H.  "Individual  learning  capacity  constant  for  different 
types  of  material."  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  10:121- 
28,  March,  1919. 

In  an  experiment  which  was  conducted  to  discover  the  constancy  of  individual 
learning  capacity  with  reference  to  four  different  types  of  material;  substitution, 
nonsense  syllables,  card  distribution  and  marble  distribution,  an  average  Intercorre- 
lation  of  0.503  between  all  of  the  tests  was  secured.  From  this,  the  author  concludes 
that  there  likely  exists  a  constant  factor,  which  may  be  called  general  learning 
capacity,  due  to  the  ease  of  bond  formation  in  the  central  nervous  system.  The 
subjects  were  all  over  the  age  of  twenty-one.  They  had  received  a  widely  different 
education  and  their  experiences  in  life  had  been  varied.  Therefore  they  brought  to 
these  experiments  not  only  different  learning  capacities  but  other  differences  which 
doubtless  acted  as  disturbing  factors.  The  author  states  that  "there  is  considerable 
evidence  that  if  all  the  disturbing  factors  could  be  removed,  the  true  correlation 
would  be  much  nearer  uniformity  than  the  raw  correlation  which  we  have  actually 
found." 

Rich,  Gilbert  J.  "Directed  attention  and  learning,"  Journal  of  Ed- 
ucational Psychology,  8:239-40,  April,  1917. 

The  author  describes  an  experiment,  conducted  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
evidence  concerning  the  effectiveness  of  directing  the  attention  of  pupils  to  the 
middle  of  a  series  of  syllables  or  of  a  selection  of  poetry.  In  alleviating  the  difficulty 
in  learning  caused  by  the  fact  that  the  beginning  and  ending  of  a  series  or  of  a 
selection  is  learned  more  readily  than  the  middle,  the  results  show  that  this  pro- 
cedure is  advantageous  for  serial  material  but  not  for  non-serial  material. 

Sears,  J.  B.  Class  Room  Organization  and  Control,  Boston:  Hough- 
ton Mifflin  Company,  1918,  p.  173-87. 

In  this  chapter  "the  importance  of  right  methods  of  study  when  they  are 
extended  to  all  the  aspects  of  school  work,  and  correlated  as  far  as  may  be  without 
outside  activities,  has  been  pointed  out  as  have  actual  steps  in  the  study  process." 
Proper  management  of  study  emphasizes  the  need  for  (1)  a  clear  aim,  (2)  a  real 
motive  for  study,  such  as  is  represented  by  actual  problems,  and  (3)  ability  to  find 
and  organize  material  that  will  solve  these  problems.  It  "must  result  finally  in 
critical  attitudes  toward  facts  and  in  sound  habits  of  work." 

Simpson,  Mabel  E.    Supervised  Study  in  American  History.    New 

York:   The  Macmillan  Company,  1918.  278  p. 

The  author  describes  a  method  of  supervised  study  devised  and  employed  by 
herself  for  teaching  pupils  how  to  study  history.  A  large  number  of  lessons  are 
outlined  in  detail  in  order  that  any  teacher  may  put  into  appHcation  the  principles 
involved.  An  attempt  is  made  to  shift  the  center  of  interest  in  the  classroom  from 
the  teacher  to  the  students  and  to  guide  pupils  into  independent,  purposeful  and 
effective  study.  The  author  has  frequently  employed  the  socialized  recitation. 
"Other  teachers  very  likely  would  supervise  study  very  differently  from  the  pro- 
cedure described  in  this  book;  but  here  is  one  method  that  has  awakened  young 

[64] 


pupils  from  lethargy  and  even  hostility  to  a  real  enthusiasm  for  the  study  of  history. 
By  this  method  they  were  introduced  to  social  obligations  and  privileges." 

Strayer,  George  D.   A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process.    New 

York:   The  Macmillan  Company,  1912,  p.  86-99. 

Methods  whereby  children  may  be  taught  to  study  most  effectively  are  pre- 
sented and  discussed.  Under  memorization,  methods  of  teaching  children  how  to 
memorize  by  wholes  rather  than  by  parts  are  explained.  Rules  and  suggestions  for 
habit  formation  in  pupils  are  also  given. 

Strayer,  George  D.  and  Norsworthy^  Naomi.  How  to  Teach.  New 

York:    The  Macmillan  Company,  1917,  p.  220-33. 

The  authors  attempt  to  set  forth  the  elements  of  effective  study.  They  suggest 
classifications  of  study  according  to  various  criteria.  The  following  general  factors 
involved  in  all  types  of  study  and  therefore  fundamental  to  good  habits  of  study 
are  discussed:  "(1)  a  clear  purpose;  (2)  a  vital  interest  of  some  kind;  (3)  concen- 
trated attention;  and  (4)  a  critical  attitude."  Additional  suggestions  peculiar  to 
special  types  of  study  are  given. 

Thomas,  Frank  W.  Training  for  Effective  Study.   Boston:    Hough- 
ton Mifflin  Company,  1922.   251  p. 

The  author  of  this  volume  places  the  emphasis  in  the  teacher  training  process, 
on  organizing  pupils  to  study  effectively  and  to  learn  to  think.  He  would  have  "the 
children  do  the  thinking  and  more  of  the  talking  in  the  recitation."  The  function 
of  the  teacher  is  then  changed  from  that  of  hearing  recitations  to  that  of  guiding 
and  directing  pupils  to  study  and  think.  In  the  earlier  pages  of  the  book  the  present 
schoolroom  practices,  which  are  unfavorable  to  effective  study,  together  with  the 
methods  for  improvement  are  discussed  briefly.  In  pointing  out  the  essentials  which 
insure  success  in  guiding  pupils  toward  the  acquisition  of  skill  in  studying,  the  author 
states  four  fundamental  conditions  necessary  to  good  study.  Considerable  space  is 
devoted  to  the  explanation  and  presentation  of  methods  for  securing  these  conditions. 
A  number  of  suggestions  for  training  pupils  how  to  study  in  each  of  the  four  different 
types  of  study  activities  are  set  forth.  The  "ability  to  engage  in  independent  self 
directed  effort  is  continually  emphasized  as  the  goal  for  all  training  in  study." 

Thorndike,  Edward  L.   "Instruments  for  measuring  the  disciplinary 

values  of  studies,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  5:269-79, 

April,  1922. 

Tests  designed  to  measure  an  increase  in  the  ability  to  generalize,  to  under- 
stand symbolism,  to  see  relationships,  and  to  organize  material,  which  might  be 
brought  about  by  the  study  of  grammar,  languages,  and  mathematics,  are  presented. 
No  results  of  the  use  of  the  tests  are  given. 

Thorndike,  Edward  L.  "The  permanence  of  school  learning,"  School 

and  Society,  15:625-27,  June,  1922. 

Some  suggestions  as  to  the  permanence  of  school  learning  in  algebra  were 
secured  as  the  result  of  a  somewhat  informal  experiment  carried  on  with  college 
freshmen  and  with  individuals  doing  their  first  year  of  post-graduate  work.  Both 
groups  were  required  to  perform  exercises  of  approximately  equal  difficulty.  The 
freshmen  who  were  at  that  time  studying  algebra  were  able  to  complete  four  or  five 
tests,  while  the  older  students  averaged  only  three.  A  smaller  loss  in  material 
learned  than  was  formerly  believed  seems  indicated  by  this  experiment. 

[65] 


Wiley,  J.  A,    Practice  Exercises  in  Supervised  Study  and  Reading. 

Cedar  Falls:   J.  A.  Wiley,  Iowa  State  Teachers  College,  1922. 

The  author  of  this  study  recognizes  the  importance  of  effective  reading  to 
efficient  study  procedure.  However,  in  his  suggestions  for  the  derivation  or  appli- 
cation of  these  exercises,  no  attempt  is  made  to  separate  reading  from  study  pro- 
cedure. He  states  that  '"this  book  is  constructed  on  the  theory  that  skillful  study 
involves  a  great  variety  of  specific  study  habits,  each  of  which  must  be  built  up  in 
conformity  with  laws  of  habit  formation."  Consequently,  the  exercises  arc  designed 
for  a  variety  of  purposes.  The  title  of  the  book  seems  somewhat  misleading  in 
regard  to  the  actual  presentation  exercises,  as  the  author  goes  no  farther  than  a 
careful  explanation  for  their  devising. 

Wilson,  H.  B.  Training  Pupils  to  Study.   Baltimore:    Warwick  and 
York,  1917.  72  p. 

This  book  is  one  issued  in  a  series  of  the  Topeka,  Kansas,  Public  Schools,  in 
order  to  aid  the  teaching  staff  in  their  efforts  to  train  pupils  to  study  effectively. 
It  contains  a  record  of  "the  different  things  which  teachers  reported  they  did  in 
training  their  pupils  to  study."  An  attempt  is  made  to  analyze  the  factors  in  study, 
and  the  methods  employed  by  teachers  in  each  of  the  various  grades  for  promoting 
eleven  factors  arc  given.  This  volume  contains  excellent  suggestions,  especially  for 
the  lower  grades,  in  training  pupils  to  study. 

ZiMMERs,  P.  J.  Teaching  Boys  and  Girls  How  to  Study.   Madison, 
Wisconsin:    The  Parker  Educational  Company,  1917.   39  p. 

In  this  brief  report  an  account  is  given  of  an  experiment  conducted  in  the 
schools  of  Manitowoc,  Wisconsin,  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  effective  study  on 
the  part  of  students.  An  investigation  of  classroom  procedure,  in  regard  to  the 
nature  of  student  activity  and  the  relative  amount  of  student  and  teacher  activity 
was  made  throughout  the  schools.  After  an  intensive  training  given  the  teachers 
as  to  principles  and  methods  of  directing  study  procedure,  classroom  instruction 
was  reorganized  on  the  basis  of  promoting  student  activity.  Definite  standards  to 
use  in  judging  the  effectiveness  of  the  recitation  were  given  both  teachers  and 
supervisors. 

After  this  plan  of  classroom  procedure  had  been  in  operation  two  years,  an 
examination  of  the  results  indicated  that  student  activity  occupied  by  far  the 
greater  portion  of  the  classroom  work,  whereas  formerly  from  70  to  90  percent  had 
been  devoted  to  teacher  activity.  The  following  were  given  as  the  most  important 
changes  resulting  from  the  concerted  action  of  all  the  teachers  to  train  pupils  in 
effective  methods  of  study:  (I)  Responsibility  and  self-activity  engendered  on  the 
part  of  pupils;  (2)  Responsibility  for  the  conduct  of  the  class  work  assumed  largely 
by  pupils;  (3)  Pupils  able  to  select  basic  and  salient  facts  with  the  details  neces- 
sary to  support  them,  and  then  to  eliminate  the  remaining  information;  (4)  Prob- 
lems in  discipline  reduced  to  a  minimum  because  the  laws  of  the  school  not  regarded 
by  pupils  as  impositions  from  without. 


[66] 


.-e.,**^,  J 


r/^ 


UNIVERSITY    OF    ILLINOIS    BULLETIN 

Issued  Weekly 
Vol.  XXII  September  8,  1924  No.  2 

[Entered  as  second-class  matter  December  11,  1912,  at  the  post  office  at  Urbana,  Illinois,  under  the 
Act  of  August  24,  1912.  Acceptance  for  mailing  at  the  special  rate  of  postage  provided  for  in 
section  1103,  Act  of  October  3,    1917,  authorized  July  31,   1918.] 


BULLETIN  NO.  20 


BUREAU  OF  EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH 
COLLEGE  OF  EDUCATION 

TRAINING  IN   THE   TECHNIQUE 
OF  STUDY 

By 

Walter  S.  Monroe 
Director,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 

Assisted  by 

Dora  Keen  Mohlman 
Formerly  Assistant,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 


PRICE  SO  CENTS 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS,  URBANA 

1924 


The  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  was  established  by  act 
of  the  Board  of  Trustees  June  1,  1918.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the 
Bureau  to  conduct  original  investigations  in  the  field  of  education, 
to  summarize  and  bring  to  the  attention  of  school  people  the  results 
of  research  elsewhere,  and  to  be  of  service  to  the  schools  of  the 
state  in  other  ways. 

The  results  of  original  investigations  carried  on  by  the  Bureau 
of  Educational  Research  are  published  in  the  form  of  bulletins.  A 
complete  list  of  these  publications  is  given  on  the  back  cover  of 
this  bulletin.  At  the  present  time  five  or  six  original  investigations 
are  reported  each  year.  The  accounts  of  research  conducted  else- 
where and  other  communications  to  the  school  men  of  the  state 
are  published  in  the  form  of  educational  research  circulars.  From 
ten  to  fifteen  of  these  are  issued  each  year. 

The  Bureau  is  a  department  of  the  College  of  Education.  Its 
immediate  direction  is  vested  in  a  Director,  who  is  also  an  instructor 
in  the  College  of  Education.  Under  his  supervision  research  is 
carried  on  by  other  members  of  the  Bureau  staff  and  also  by  grad- 
uates who  are  working  on  theses.  From  this  point  of  view  the 
Bureau  of  Educational  Research  is  a  research  laboratory  for  the 
College  of  Education. 

Bureau  of  Educatioxal  Research 

College  of  Education 

University  of  Illinois,  Urbana 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 

THE  STATE  UNIVERSITY 
URBANA 

DAVID  KINLEY,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  President 


The  University  Includes  the  Follozving  Departments 

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The  Curriculum  in  Journalism 

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The  library  collections  contain  March  1,  1924,  574,214  volumes  and  129,974  pam- 
phlets.  For  catalogs  and  information  address 

THE  REGISTRAR 

Urbana,  Illinois 


BULLETINS  OF  THE  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH, 

COLLEGE  OF  EDUCATION,  UTsTVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS, 

URB.\NA,  ILLINOIS 

Price 
No.  1.  Buckingham,  B.  R.    Bureau  of  Educational  Research,  Announcement, 

1918-19 15 

No.  2.  First  Annual  Report 25 

No.  3.  Bamesberger,  Velda  C.  Standard  Requirements  for  Memorizing  Lit- 
erary Material 50 

No.  4.  Holley,  Charles  E.   Mental  Tests  for  School  Use.    (Out  of  print) 50 

No.  5.  Monroe,  Walter  S.   Report  of  Division  of  Educational  Tests  for  1919-20       .25 

No.  6.  Monroe,  Walter  S.    The  Illinois   Examination 50 

No.  7.  Monroe,  Walter  S.  Types  of  Learning  Required  of  Pupils  in  the  Sev- 
enth and  Eighth  Grades  and  in  the  High  School 15 

No.  8.  Monroe,  Walter  S.   A  Critical  Study  of  Certain  Silent  Reading  Tests. .       .50 

No.  9.  Monroe,  Walter  S.   Written  Examinations  and  Their  Improvement 50 

No.  10.  Bureau  of  Educational  Research.   Relation  of  Size  of  Class  to  School 

EfBcIency SO 

No.  11.  Monroe,  Walter  S.   Relation  of  Sectioning  a  Class  to  the  Effectiveness 

of    Instruction 15 

No.  12.  Odell,  Charles  W.   The  Use  of  Intelligence  Tests  as  a  Basis  of  School 

Organization  and  Instruction 50 

No.  13.  Monroe,  Walter  S.,  and  Foster,  I.  0.   The  Status  of  the  Social  Sciences 

in  the  High  Schools  of  the  North  Central  Association 50 

No.  14.  Monroe,  Walter  S.,  and  Carter,  Ralph  E.  The  Use  of  Different  Types 
of  Thought  Questions  in  Secondary  Schools  and  Their  Relative  Dif- 
ficulty for  Students 30 

No.  15.  Monroe,  Walter  S.   The  Constant  and  Variable  Errors  of  Educational 

Measurements 25 

No.  16.  Odell,  Charles  W.  An  Annotated  Bibliography  Dealing  With  the 
Classification  and  Instruction  of  Pupils  to  Provide  for  Individual 
Differences 50 

No.  17.  Monroe,  Walter  S.,  and  Souders,  Lloyd  B.  Present  Status  of  Writ- 
ten Examinations  and  Suggestions  for  Their  Improvement 50 

No.  18.  Streitz,     Ruth.      Teachers'    Difficulties     in     Arithmetic     and     Their 

Correctives 30 

No.  19.  Odell,  Charles  W.    The  Progress  and  Elimination  of  School  Children 

in   Illinois 50 

No.  20.  Monroe,    Walter    S.,    and    Mohlman,   Dora    Keen.     Training    in    the 

Technique  of  Study 50 


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